What it Means to Write About Art

Download What it Means to Write About Art PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : David Zwirner Books
ISBN 13 : 1941701892
Total Pages : 560 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (417 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis What it Means to Write About Art by : Jarrett Earnest

Download or read book What it Means to Write About Art written by Jarrett Earnest and published by David Zwirner Books. This book was released on 2018-11-27 with total page 560 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The most comprehensive portrait of art criticism ever assembled, as told by the leading writers of our time. In the last fifty years, art criticism has flourished as never before. Moving from niche to mainstream, it is now widely taught at universities, practiced in newspapers, magazines, and online, and has become the subject of debate by readers, writers, and artists worldwide. Equal parts oral history and analysis of craft, What It Means to Write About Art offers an unprecedented overview of American art writing. These thirty in-depth conversations chart the role of the critic as it has evolved from the 1960s to today, providing an invaluable resource for aspiring artists and writers alike. John Ashbery recalls finding Rimbaud’s poetry through his first gay crush at sixteen; Rosalind Krauss remembers stealing the design of October from Massimo Vignelli; Paul Chaat Smith details his early days with Jimmy Durham in the American Indian Movement; Dave Hickey talks about writing country songs with Waylon Jennings; Michele Wallace relives her late-night and early-morning interviews with James Baldwin; Lucy Lippard describes confronting Clement Greenberg at a lecture; Eileen Myles asserts her belief that her negative review incited the Women’s Action Coalition; and Fred Moten recounts falling in love with Renoir while at Harvard. Jarrett Earnest’s wide-ranging conversations with critics, historians, journalists, novelists, poets, and theorists—each of whom approach the subject from unique positions—illustrate different ways of writing, thinking, and looking at art. Interviews with Hilton Als, John Ashbery, Bill Berkson, Yve-Alain Bois, Huey Copeland, Holland Cotter, Douglas Crimp, Darby English, Hal Foster, Michael Fried, Thyrza Nichols Goodeve, Dave Hickey, Siri Hustvedt, Kellie Jones, Chris Kraus, Rosalind Krauss, Lucy Lippard, Fred Moten, Eileen Myles, Molly Nesbit, Jed Perl, Barbara Rose, Jerry Saltz, Peter Schjeldahl, Barry Schwabsky, Paul Chaat Smith, Roberta Smith, Lynne Tillman, Michele Wallace, and John Yau.

How to Write About Contemporary Art

Download How to Write About Contemporary Art PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Thames & Hudson
ISBN 13 : 0500772177
Total Pages : 240 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (7 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis How to Write About Contemporary Art by : Gilda Williams

Download or read book How to Write About Contemporary Art written by Gilda Williams and published by Thames & Hudson. This book was released on 2014-10-14 with total page 240 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An essential handbook for students and professionals on writing eloquently, accurately, and originally about contemporary art How to Write About Contemporary Art is the definitive guide to writing engagingly about the art of our time. Invaluable for students, arts professionals and other aspiring writers, the book first navigates readers through the key elements of style and content, from the aims and structure of a piece to its tone and language. Brimming with practical tips that range across the complete spectrum of art-writing, the second part of the book is organized around its specific forms, including academic essays; press releases and news articles; texts for auction and exhibition catalogues, gallery guides and wall labels; op-ed journalism and exhibition reviews; and writing for websites and blogs. In counseling the reader against common pitfalls—such as jargon and poor structure—Gilda Williams points instead to the power of close looking and research, showing how to deploy language effectively; how to develop new ideas; and how to construct compelling texts. More than 30 illustrations throughout support closely analysed case studies of the best writing, in Source Texts by 64 authors, including Claire Bishop, Thomas Crow, T.J. Demos, Okwui Enwezor, Dave Hickey, John Kelsey, Chris Kraus, Rosalind Krauss, Stuart Morgan, Hito Steyerl, and Adam Szymczyk. Supplemented by a general bibliography, advice on the use and misuse of grammar, and tips on how to construct your own contemporary art library, How to Write About Contemporary Art is the essential handbook for all those interested in communicating about the art of today.

The Artist's Way

Download The Artist's Way PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 1101156880
Total Pages : 295 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (11 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Artist's Way by : Julia Cameron

Download or read book The Artist's Way written by Julia Cameron and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2002-03-04 with total page 295 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "With its gentle affirmations, inspirational quotes, fill-in-the-blank lists and tasks — write yourself a thank-you letter, describe yourself at 80, for example — The Artist’s Way proposes an egalitarian view of creativity: Everyone’s got it."—The New York Times "Morning Pages have become a household name, a shorthand for unlocking your creative potential"—Vogue Over four million copies sold! Since its first publication, The Artist's Way phenomena has inspired the genius of Elizabeth Gilbert and millions of readers to embark on a creative journey and find a deeper connection to process and purpose. Julia Cameron's novel approach guides readers in uncovering problems areas and pressure points that may be restricting their creative flow and offers techniques to free up any areas where they might be stuck, opening up opportunities for self-growth and self-discovery. The program begins with Cameron’s most vital tools for creative recovery – The Morning Pages, a daily writing ritual of three pages of stream-of-conscious, and The Artist Date, a dedicated block of time to nurture your inner artist. From there, she shares hundreds of exercises, activities, and prompts to help readers thoroughly explore each chapter. She also offers guidance on starting a “Creative Cluster” of fellow artists who will support you in your creative endeavors. A revolutionary program for personal renewal, The Artist's Way will help get you back on track, rediscover your passions, and take the steps you need to change your life.

Tell Me Something Good

Download Tell Me Something Good PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : David Zwirner Books
ISBN 13 : 194170137X
Total Pages : 537 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (417 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Tell Me Something Good by : Jarrett Earnest

Download or read book Tell Me Something Good written by Jarrett Earnest and published by David Zwirner Books. This book was released on 2017-11-21 with total page 537 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since 2000, The Brooklyn Rail has been a platform for artists, academics, critics, poets, and writers in New York and abroad. The monthly journal’s continued appeal is due in large part to its diverse contributors, many of whom bring contrasting and often unexpected opinions to conversations about art and aesthetics. No other publication devotes as much space to the artist’s voice, allowing ideas to unfold and idiosyncrasies to emerge through open discussion. Since its inception, cofounder and artistic director Phong Bui and the Rail’s contributors have interviewed over four hundred artists for The Brooklyn Rail. This volume brings together for the first time a selection of sixty of the most influential and seminal interviews with artists ranging from Richard Serra and Brice Marden, to Alex Da Corte and House of Ladosha. While each interview is important in its own right, offering a perspective on the life and work of a specific artist, collectively they tell the story of a journal that has grown during one of the more diverse and surprising periods in visual art. There is no unified style or perspective; The Brooklyn Rail’s strength lies in its ability to include and champion difference. Selected and coedited by Jarrett Earnest, a frequent Rail contributor, with Lucas Zwirner, the book includes an introduction to the project by Phong Bui as well as many of the hand-drawn portraits he has made of those he has interviewed over the years. This combination of verbal and visual profiles offers a rare and personal insight into contemporary visual culture. Interviews with Vito Acconci, Ai Weiwei, Lynda Benglis, James Bishop, Chris Burden, Vija Celmins, Francesco Clemente, Bruce Conner, Alex Da Corte, Rosalyn Drexler, Keltie Ferris, Simone Forti, Andrea Fraser, LaToya Ruby Frazier, Suzan Frecon, Coco Fusco, Robert Gober, Leon Golub, Ron Gorchov, Michelle Grabner, Josephine Halvorson, Sheila Hicks, David Hockney, Roni Horn, House of Ladosha, Alfredo Jaar, Bill Jensen, Alex Katz, William Kentridge, Matvey Levenstein, Nalini Malani, Brice Marden, Chris Martin, Jonas Mekas, Shirin Neshat, Thomas Nozkowski, Lorraine O’Grady, Genesis Breyer P-Orridge, Joanna Pousette-Dart, Ernesto Pujol, Martin Puryear, Walid Raad, Dorothea Rockburne, Tim Rollins and K.O.S., Robert Ryman, Dana Schutz, Richard Serra, Shahzia Sikander, Nancy Spero, Hiroshi Sugimoto, Sarah Sze, Rirkrit Tiravanija, James Turrell, Richard Tuttle, Luc Tuymans, Kara Walker, Stanley Whitney, Jack Whitten, Yan Pei-Ming, and Lisa Yuskavage Special thanks to Furthermore, a program of the J.M. Kaplan Fund, for their support of The Brooklyn Rail.

Art Matters

Download Art Matters PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : HarperCollins
ISBN 13 : 0062942654
Total Pages : 112 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (629 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Art Matters by : Neil Gaiman

Download or read book Art Matters written by Neil Gaiman and published by HarperCollins. This book was released on 2019-01-15 with total page 112 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A stunning and timely creative call-to-arms combining four extraordinary written pieces by Neil Gaiman illustrated with the striking four-color artwork of Chris Riddell. “The world always seems brighter when you’ve just made something that wasn’t there before.”—Neil Gaiman Drawn from Gaiman’s trove of published speeches, poems, and creative manifestos, Art Matters is an embodiment of this remarkable multi-media artist’s vision—an exploration of how reading, imagining, and creating can transform the world and our lives. Art Matters bring together four of Gaiman’s most beloved writings on creativity and artistry: “Credo,” his remarkably concise and relevant manifesto on free expression, first delivered in the wake of the Charlie Hebdo shootings “Make Good Art,” his famous 2012 commencement address delivered at the Philadelphia University of the Arts “Making a Chair,” a poem about the joys of creating something, even when words won’t come “On Libraries,” an impassioned argument for libraries that illuminates their importance to our future and celebrates how they foster readers and daydreamers Featuring original illustrations by Gaiman’s longtime illustrator, Chris Riddell, Art Matters is a stirring testament to the freedom of ideas that inspires us to make art in the face of adversity, and dares us to choose to be bold.

Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning

Download Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Good Press
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 614 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (596 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning by : Pamela Sachant

Download or read book Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning written by Pamela Sachant and published by Good Press. This book was released on 2023-11-27 with total page 614 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Introduction to Art: Design, Context, and Meaning offers a deep insight and comprehension of the world of Art. Contents: What is Art? The Structure of Art Significance of Materials Used in Art Describing Art - Formal Analysis, Types, and Styles of Art Meaning in Art - Socio-Cultural Contexts, Symbolism, and Iconography Connecting Art to Our Lives Form in Architecture Art and Identity Art and Power Art and Ritual Life - Symbolism of Space and Ritual Objects, Mortality, and Immortality Art and Ethics

What Is Art and Essays on Art

Download What Is Art and Essays on Art PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Read Books Ltd
ISBN 13 : 1528769643
Total Pages : 327 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (287 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis What Is Art and Essays on Art by : Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy

Download or read book What Is Art and Essays on Art written by Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy and published by Read Books Ltd. This book was released on 2020-10-16 with total page 327 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Originally published in 1930, this book contains the widely respected essay 'What Is Art', by the well-known Russian writer Leo Tolstoy, and is highly recommended for inclusion on the bookshelf of any fan of his works. Many of these earliest books, particularly those dating back to the 1900s and before, are now extremely scarce and increasingly expensive. We are republishing these classic works in affordable, high quality, modern editions, using the original text and artwork.

Make Good Art

Download Make Good Art PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Harper Collins
ISBN 13 : 0062266829
Total Pages : 179 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (622 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Make Good Art by : Neil Gaiman

Download or read book Make Good Art written by Neil Gaiman and published by Harper Collins. This book was released on 2013-05-14 with total page 179 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In May 2012, bestselling author Neil Gaiman delivered the commencement address at Philadelphia’s University of the Arts, in which he shared his thoughts about creativity, bravery, and strength. He encouraged the fledgling painters, musicians, writers, and dreamers to break rules and think outside the box. Most of all, he encouraged them to make good art. The book Make Good Art, designed by renowned graphic artist Chip Kidd, contains the full text of Gaiman’s inspiring speech.

Why I Write

Download Why I Write PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Renard Press Ltd
ISBN 13 : 1913724263
Total Pages : 15 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (137 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Why I Write by : George Orwell

Download or read book Why I Write written by George Orwell and published by Renard Press Ltd. This book was released on 2021-01-01 with total page 15 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: George Orwell set out ‘to make political writing into an art’, and to a wide extent this aim shaped the future of English literature – his descriptions of authoritarian regimes helped to form a new vocabulary that is fundamental to understanding totalitarianism. While 1984 and Animal Farm are amongst the most popular classic novels in the English language, this new series of Orwell’s essays seeks to bring a wider selection of his writing on politics and literature to a new readership. In Why I Write, the first in the Orwell’s Essays series, Orwell describes his journey to becoming a writer, and his movement from writing poems to short stories to the essays, fiction and non-fiction we remember him for. He also discusses what he sees as the ‘four great motives for writing’ – ‘sheer egoism’, ‘aesthetic enthusiasm’, ‘historical impulse’ and ‘political purpose’ – and considers the importance of keeping these in balance. Why I Write is a unique opportunity to look into Orwell’s mind, and it grants the reader an entirely different vantage point from which to consider the rest of the great writer’s oeuvre. 'A writer who can – and must – be rediscovered with every age.' — Irish Times

How to be an Artist

Download How to be an Artist PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780744051162
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (511 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis How to be an Artist by : S. Natalie Abadzis

Download or read book How to be an Artist written by S. Natalie Abadzis and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "A fun-filled art activity book that will encourage kids to express themselves while teaching them about key artistic styles and a selection of pioneering artists from history"--

Social Forms: A Short History of Political Art

Download Social Forms: A Short History of Political Art PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : David Zwirner Books
ISBN 13 : 1941701906
Total Pages : 117 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (417 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Social Forms: A Short History of Political Art by : Christian Viveros-Faune

Download or read book Social Forms: A Short History of Political Art written by Christian Viveros-Faune and published by David Zwirner Books. This book was released on 2018-12-20 with total page 117 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In an increasingly polarized world, with shifting and extreme politics, Social Forms illustrates artists at the forefront of political and social resistance. Highlighting different moments of crisis and how these are reflected and preserved through crucial artworks, it also asks how to make art in the age of Brexit, Trump, and the refugee and climate crises. In Social Forms: A Short History of Political Art, renowned critic, curator, and writer Christian Viveros-Fauné has picked fifty representative artworks—from Francisco de Goya’s The Disasters of War (1810–1820) to David Hammons’s In the Hood (1993)—that give voice to some of modern art’s strongest calls to political action. In accessible and witty entries on each piece, Viveros-Fauné paints a picture of the context in which each work was created, the artist’s background, and the historical impact of each contribution. At times artists create projects that subvert existing power structures; at other moments they make artwork so powerful it challenges the very fabric of society. Whether it is Picasso’s Guernica and its place at the 1937 Worlds Fair, or Jenny Holzer’s Truisms (1977–1979), which still stop us in our tracks, this book tells the story behind some of the most important and unexpected encounters between artworks and the real worlds they engage with. Never professing to be a definitive history of political art, Social Forms delivers a unique and compelling portrait of how artists during the last 150 years have dealt with changing political systems, the violence of modern warfare, the rise of consumer culture worldwide, the prevalence of inequality and racism, and the challenges of technology.

ArtCenter Talks: The First Decade

Download ArtCenter Talks: The First Decade PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : David Zwirner Books
ISBN 13 : 1941701523
Total Pages : 369 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (417 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis ArtCenter Talks: The First Decade by : Stan Douglas

Download or read book ArtCenter Talks: The First Decade written by Stan Douglas and published by David Zwirner Books. This book was released on 2017-02-28 with total page 369 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This collection of never-before-published talks at one of the leading art schools in the United States, documents an exciting decade in the development of contemporary art and arts education, featuring interviews with renowned artists, curators, and writers. Contributions by Beth B, Rosetta Brooks, Luís Castro Leiva, Meg Cranston, Charles Gaines, Jack Goldstein, Felix Gonzalez-Torres, Susan Hiller, Roni Horn, Kellie Jones, Mike Kelley, Justen Ladda, Thomas Lawson, Sylvère Lotringer, John Miller, Constance Penley, Brian Routh, Mira Schor, Allan Sekula, Robert Storr, and Lynne Tillman Introduced in 1986 as an initiative by Richard Hertz (Chair, Academic Studies, 1979–2003), the Graduate Art Department of the ArtCenter College of Design, located in Pasadena, California, celebrates its thirtieth anniversary in 2016. This book documents the first decade of the department’s existence by presenting a selection from over three hundred talks, including a 1990 symposium conducted by renowned curator and art historian Robert Storr, as well as twelve talks from its artists and critics lecture series known as the Graduate Seminar. Discussions between students and faculty members range from what it means to be an artist and the changing role of art in society, to how artists function within an academic setting. Alongside the newly transcribed talks, this volume also includes reproductions of slides used by participants at the time. Bringing the presentations to life, these archival images offer a sense of the context and spirit of the original seminars. Together, an introduction by Stan Douglas—ArtCenter Graduate Art faculty member—and a foreword by Diana Thater and Jason E. Smith, Chair and Associate Chair of Graduate Art, present historical context for these illuminating talks.

The Picture of Dorian Gray

Download The Picture of Dorian Gray PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Union Square & Co.
ISBN 13 : 1435173120
Total Pages : 327 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (351 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Picture of Dorian Gray by : Oscar Wilde

Download or read book The Picture of Dorian Gray written by Oscar Wilde and published by Union Square & Co.. This book was released on 2023-10-17 with total page 327 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: When handsome young Dorian Gray sees a painter’s stunning portrait of him, he is transfixed by its reflection of his own beauty. He is also troubled by the knowledge that the image in the painting will remain forever youthful and handsome while he himself will grow older and less desirable. He wishes aloud that the roles were reversed, saying that he would give his soul if only the painting would suffer the ravages of time and he were to remain forever young. From that point on, Dorian lives a life of hedonistic indulgence, knowing that only the painting will show his moral corruption.

A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man

Download A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Modernista
ISBN 13 : 9180943780
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (89 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man by : James Joyce

Download or read book A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man written by James Joyce and published by Modernista. This book was released on 2023-11-21 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man [1916] established James Joyce as a leading figure in literary modernism across Europe. The novel is set in the author’s homeland, Ireland, and narrates, in five episodes, the childhood of Stephen Dedalus. The plot is entirely based on Joyce’s own life and serves as a private manifesto, particularly through its sharp declaration of independence from Catholicism. Joyce pioneered a new way of writing novels, abandoning traditional narration for stream of consciousness and introducing his epiphanies—momentary revelations that, in their everydayness, hint at a larger context of life. Upon the recommendation of the American poet Ezra Pound, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man was serialized in the magazine The Egoist in 1914/15 before being published as a book the following year. Today, more than a hundred years after its release, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man is considered one of the most significant autobiographical texts in world literature. The Modern Library ranked it as the 3rd best English-language novel of the 20th century (with Joyce’s Ulysses as #1). JAMES JOYCE [1882-1941], Irish author, is a key figure in modernist literature with works such as Dubliners [1914], A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man [1916], and Ulysses [1922].

Asemic

Download Asemic PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : U of Minnesota Press
ISBN 13 : 1452961077
Total Pages : 212 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (529 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Asemic by : Peter Schwenger

Download or read book Asemic written by Peter Schwenger and published by U of Minnesota Press. This book was released on 2019-12-31 with total page 212 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first critical study of writing without language In recent years, asemic writing—writing without language—has exploded in popularity, with anthologies, a large-scale art exhibition, and flourishing interest on sites like tumblr, YouTube, Pinterest, and Instagram. Yet this burgeoning, fascinating field has never received a dedicated critical study. Asemic fills that gap, proposing new ways of rethinking the nature of writing. Pioneered in the work of creators such as Henri Michaux, Roland Barthes, and Cy Twombly, asemic writing consolidated as a movement in the 1990s. Author Peter Schwenger first covers these “asemic ancestors” before moving to current practitioners such as Michael Jacobson, Rosaire Appel, and Christopher Skinner, exploring how asemic writing has evolved and gained importance in the contemporary era. Asemic includes intriguing revelations about the relation of asemic writing to Chinese characters, the possibility of asemic writing in nature, and explanations of how we can read without language. Written in a lively style, this book will engage scholars of contemporary art and literary theory, as well as anyone interested in what writing was and what it is now in the process of becoming.

Art as Experience

Download Art as Experience  PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 392 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Art as Experience by : John Dewey

Download or read book Art as Experience written by John Dewey and published by . This book was released on 1935 with total page 392 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

A Restless Art

Download A Restless Art PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781903080207
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (82 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis A Restless Art by : François Matarasso

Download or read book A Restless Art written by François Matarasso and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the contents:00I. Participatory art now01. The normalisation of participatory art 0II. What is participatory art?02. Concepts03. Defnitions04. The intentions of participatory art 05. The art of participatory art 06. The ethics of participatory art 0III. Where does participatory art come from?07. Making history 08. Deep roots 09. Community art and the cultural revolution (1968 to 1988) 010. Participatory art and appropriation (1988 to 2008).