Optimization Of Biological Sulphate Reduction To Treat Inorganic Wastewaters

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Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters

Author : Joana Cassidy
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 0429611684
Total Pages : 178 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (296 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters by : Joana Cassidy

Download or read book Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters written by Joana Cassidy and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2020-04-27 with total page 178 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work investigated two different approaches to optimize biological sulphate reduction in order to develop a process control strategy to optimize the input of an electron donor and to study how to increase the feasibility of using a cheap carbon source. Feast/famine regimes, applied to design the control strategy, were shown to induce the accumulation of storage compounds in the sulphate reducing biomass. This study showed that delays in the response time and a high control gain can be considered as the most critical factors affecting a sulphide control strategy in bioreactors. The delays are caused by the induction of different metabolic pathways in the anaerobic sludge, including the accumulation of storage products. On this basis, a mathematical model was developed and validated. This can be used to develop optimal control strategies. In order to understand the microbial pathways in the anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to sulphate reduction (AOM-SR), diverse potential electron donors and acceptors were added to in vitro incubations of an AOM-SR enrichment at high pressure. Acetate was formed in the control group, probably resulting from the reduction of CO2. These results support the hypothesis that acetate may serve as an intermediate in the AOM-SR process.

Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters

Author : Joana Cassidy
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (922 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters by : Joana Cassidy

Download or read book Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters written by Joana Cassidy and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work investigated two different approaches to optimize biological sulphate reduction: to develop a process control strategy to optimize the input of an electron donor and the applicability of a cheap carbon source, i.e., methane. For the design of a control strategy that uses the organic loading rate (OLR) as control input, feast and famine behaviour conditions were applied to a sulphate reducing bioreactor to excite the dynamics of the process. Such feast/famine regimes were shown to induce the accumulation of carbon, and possibly sulphur, storage compounds in the sulphate reducing biomass. This study showed that delays in the response time and a high control gain can be considered as the most critical factors affecting the application of a sulphide control strategy in bioreactors. The delays are caused by the induction of different metabolic pathways in the anaerobic sludge including the accumulation of storage products. Polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) and sulphate were found to accumulate in the biomass present in the inversed fluidized bed used in this study, and consequently, they were considered to be the main storage compounds used by SRB. On this basis a mathematical model was developed which showed a good fit between experimental and simulated data giving further support to key role of accumulation processes. In order to understand the microbial pathways in the anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to sulphate reduction (AOM-SR) diverse potential electron donors and acceptors were added to in vitro incubations of an AOM-SR enrichment at high pressure with several co-substrates. The AOM-SR is stimulated by the addition of acetate which has not been reported for any other AOM-SR performing communities. In addition, acetate was formed in the control group probably resulting from the reduction of CO2. These results support the hypothesis that acetate may serve as an intermediate in the AOM-SR process, at least in some groups of anaerobic methanotrophs (ANME) and sulphate reducing bacteria.

Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters

Author : Joana Cassidy
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 0429606168
Total Pages : 114 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (296 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters by : Joana Cassidy

Download or read book Optimization of Biological Sulphate Reduction to Treat Inorganic Wastewaters written by Joana Cassidy and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2020-04-27 with total page 114 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work investigated two different approaches to optimize biological sulphate reduction in order to develop a process control strategy to optimize the input of an electron donor and to study how to increase the feasibility of using a cheap carbon source. Feast/famine regimes, applied to design the control strategy, were shown to induce the accumulation of storage compounds in the sulphate reducing biomass. This study showed that delays in the response time and a high control gain can be considered as the most critical factors affecting a sulphide control strategy in bioreactors. The delays are caused by the induction of different metabolic pathways in the anaerobic sludge, including the accumulation of storage products. On this basis, a mathematical model was developed and validated. This can be used to develop optimal control strategies. In order to understand the microbial pathways in the anaerobic oxidation of methane coupled to sulphate reduction (AOM-SR), diverse potential electron donors and acceptors were added to in vitro incubations of an AOM-SR enrichment at high pressure. Acetate was formed in the control group, probably resulting from the reduction of CO2. These results support the hypothesis that acetate may serve as an intermediate in the AOM-SR process.

Optimization of the Electron Donor Supply to Sulphate Reducing Bioreactors Treating Inorganic Wastewater

Author : Luis Carlos Reyes-Alvarado
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 0429799284
Total Pages : 350 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (297 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of the Electron Donor Supply to Sulphate Reducing Bioreactors Treating Inorganic Wastewater by : Luis Carlos Reyes-Alvarado

Download or read book Optimization of the Electron Donor Supply to Sulphate Reducing Bioreactors Treating Inorganic Wastewater written by Luis Carlos Reyes-Alvarado and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2018-09-03 with total page 350 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The main objective of this research was to optimize the electron donor supply in sulphate reducing bioreactors treating sulphate rich wastewater. Two types of electron donor were tested: lactate and slow release electron donors such as carbohydrate based polymers and lignocellulosic biowastes. Biological sulphate reduction was evaluated in different bioreactor configurations: the inverse fluidized bed, sequencing batch and batch reactors. The reactors were tested under steady-state, high-rate and transient-state feeding conditions of electron donor and acceptor, respectively. The results showed that the inverse fluidized bed reactor configuration is robust and resilient to transient and high-rate feeding conditions at a hydraulic retention time as low as 0.125 d. The biological sulphate reduction was limited by the COD:sulphate ratio ( 82% either using carbohydrate based polymers or lignocellulosic bio-wastes, in batch bioreactors. The biological sulphate reduction was limited by the hydrolysis-fermentation rate and by the complexity of the slow release electron donors.

Optimization of the Electron Donor Supply to Sulphate Reducing Bioreactors Treating Inorganic Wastewater

Author : Luis Carlos Reyes-Alvarado
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 0429799292
Total Pages : 234 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (297 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of the Electron Donor Supply to Sulphate Reducing Bioreactors Treating Inorganic Wastewater by : Luis Carlos Reyes-Alvarado

Download or read book Optimization of the Electron Donor Supply to Sulphate Reducing Bioreactors Treating Inorganic Wastewater written by Luis Carlos Reyes-Alvarado and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2018-09-03 with total page 234 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The main objective of this research was to optimize the electron donor supply in sulphate reducing bioreactors treating sulphate rich wastewater. Two types of electron donor were tested: lactate and slow release electron donors such as carbohydrate based polymers and lignocellulosic biowastes. Biological sulphate reduction was evaluated in different bioreactor configurations: the inverse fluidized bed, sequencing batch and batch reactors. The reactors were tested under steady-state, high-rate and transient-state feeding conditions of electron donor and acceptor, respectively. The results showed that the inverse fluidized bed reactor configuration is robust and resilient to transient and high-rate feeding conditions at a hydraulic retention time as low as 0.125 d. The biological sulphate reduction was limited by the COD:sulphate ratio ( 82% either using carbohydrate based polymers or lignocellulosic bio-wastes, in batch bioreactors. The biological sulphate reduction was limited by the hydrolysis-fermentation rate and by the complexity of the slow release electron donors.

Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modeling and Design

Author : Guang-Hao Chen
Publisher : IWA Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1789060354
Total Pages : 867 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (89 download)

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Book Synopsis Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modeling and Design by : Guang-Hao Chen

Download or read book Biological Wastewater Treatment: Principles, Modeling and Design written by Guang-Hao Chen and published by IWA Publishing. This book was released on 2020-07-15 with total page 867 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first edition of this book was published in 2008 and it went on to become IWA Publishing’s bestseller. Clearly there was a need for it because over the twenty years prior to 2008, the knowledge and understanding of wastewater treatment had advanced extensively and moved away from empirically-based approaches to a fundamental first-principles approach based on chemistry, microbiology, physical and bioprocess engineering, mathematics and modelling. However the quantity, complexity and diversity of these new developments was overwhelming for young water professionals, particularly in developing countries without readily available access to advanced-level tertiary education courses in wastewater treatment. For a whole new generation of young scientists and engineers entering the wastewater treatment profession, this book assembled and integrated the postgraduate course material of a dozen or so professors from research groups around the world who have made significant contributions to the advances in wastewater treatment. This material had matured to the degree that it had been codified into mathematical models for simulation with computers. The first edition of the book offered, that upon completion of an in-depth study of its contents, the modern approach of modelling and simulation in wastewater treatment plant design and operation could be embraced with deeper insight, advanced knowledge and greater confidence, be it activated sludge, biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal, secondary settling tanks, or biofilm systems. However, the advances and developments in wastewater treatment have accelerated over the past 12 years since publication of the first edition. While all the chapters of the first edition have been updated to accommodate these advances and developments, some, such as granular sludge, membrane bioreactors, sulphur conversion-based bioprocesses and biofilm reactors which were new in 2008, have matured into new industry approaches and are also now included in this second edition. The target readership of this second edition remains the young water professionals, who will still be active in the field of protecting our precious water resources long after the aging professors who are leading some of these advances have retired. The authors, all still active in the field, are aware that cleaning dirty water has become more complex but that it is even more urgent now than 12 years ago, and offer this second edition to help the young water professionals engage with the scientific and bioprocess engineering principles of wastewater treatment science and technology with deeper insight, advanced knowledge and greater confidence built on stronger competence.

Low Cost Wastewater Bioremediation Technology

Author : Jayanta Bhattacharya
Publisher : Butterworth-Heinemann
ISBN 13 : 012812511X
Total Pages : 340 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (281 download)

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Book Synopsis Low Cost Wastewater Bioremediation Technology by : Jayanta Bhattacharya

Download or read book Low Cost Wastewater Bioremediation Technology written by Jayanta Bhattacharya and published by Butterworth-Heinemann. This book was released on 2017-08-29 with total page 340 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Low Cost Wastewater Bioremediation Technology: Innovative Treatment of Sulphate and Metal Rich Wastewater provides users with an authoritative guide on the technologies, processes and considerations needed for the treatment of Sulphate and Metal rich wastewaters. In this book, the authors not only explain the associated technologies, but also provide suitable alternatives to commercial treatment in terms of performance and cost effectiveness. As enormous quantities of sulphates and metal-rich contaminates are released into the environment each year, the technologies noted in the book provide the most eco-friendly, low cost and efficient alternatives available. Covers the efficiency of treatment in terms of scale, efficiency and effectiveness of different bioremediation technologies for wastewater remediation Discusses the economics of treatment and the development of suitable alternatives in terms of performance and cost effectiveness

Optimization of a Biological Sulfate Reduction Process

Author : Alon Lebel
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of a Biological Sulfate Reduction Process by : Alon Lebel

Download or read book Optimization of a Biological Sulfate Reduction Process written by Alon Lebel and published by . This book was released on 1985 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Optimization of Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal in A2/O Wastewater Treatment Processes

Author : Changyong Wu
Publisher : Nova Science Publishers
ISBN 13 : 9781536191400
Total Pages : 247 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (914 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal in A2/O Wastewater Treatment Processes by : Changyong Wu

Download or read book Optimization of Biological Nitrogen and Phosphorus Removal in A2/O Wastewater Treatment Processes written by Changyong Wu and published by Nova Science Publishers. This book was released on 2021 with total page 247 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Anaerobic-anoxic-oxic (A2/O) is one of the most widely used processes in municipal wastewater treatment plants for simultaneous biological nitrogen and phosphorus removal. The A2/O process has many advantages, such as simple configuration and short hydraulic retention time (HRT), etc. In addition, it is easy to operate. Therefore, A2/O will be continuously chosen as the main option in all kinds of newly designed and built wastewater treatment plants. Though the A2/O process has been used widely, it has some inherent contradictions which are difficult to overcome. For example, the contradiction between substrate competition and SRT makes the high nitrogen and phosphorus removal unable to be achieved simultaneously. As a result, the removal efficiency of the system cannot be further improved. In the past 10 years in China, the wastewater quality very obviously changed with the improvement of living conditions. At present, municipal wastewater with a low C/N ratio is rather common in most countries in the world. The lack of a carbon source will make the inherent contradictions of the A2/O process becomes serious. Therefore, the conventional design parameters of the A2/O process are needed to adjust or the configuration of the A2/O process should change to fit the change of the wastewater quality. According to this, this book systematically describes how to improve the nitrogen and phosphorus removal efficiency of municipal wastewater with low C/N ratio, and effectively utilize the carbon resource in the influent of wastewater. This publication is useful for students, researchers and engineers whose major focus is municipal and the environment"--

Optimization of Enhanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes Using a Step-feed Approach

Author : Ouyang C.F.
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 10 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (126 download)

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Book Synopsis Optimization of Enhanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes Using a Step-feed Approach by : Ouyang C.F.

Download or read book Optimization of Enhanced Biological Wastewater Treatment Processes Using a Step-feed Approach written by Ouyang C.F. and published by . This book was released on 2000 with total page 10 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Selected Water Resources Abstracts

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 952 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Selected Water Resources Abstracts by :

Download or read book Selected Water Resources Abstracts written by and published by . This book was released on 1987 with total page 952 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution

Author : Piet Lens
Publisher : IWA Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9781789060959
Total Pages : 544 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (69 download)

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Book Synopsis Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution by : Piet Lens

Download or read book Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution written by Piet Lens and published by IWA Publishing. This book was released on 2020-09-15 with total page 544 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This second edition is fully updated with new material to create a comprehensive and accessible reference book: New chapters on sulfur removal via bioelectrochemical systems, use of sulfate radicals in advanced oxidation processes and sulfur nanoparticle biosynthesis. New sections on: sulfur cycle chemistry and microbiology; sulfate removal vs. recovery of resources from sulfate-rich wastewaters; microaeration for biogas desulfurisation; biological treatment of gypsum and sulfur-rich solid waste; up-to-date process control for treatment of sulfur-rich waste streams. New case studies with emphasis on practices for sewer and steel corrosion control, odour mitigation, autotrophic denitrification and bioremediation of acid mine polluted sites in both developed and developing countries have been included. Novel concepts of environmental technologies to treat sulfur pollution of wastewater, off-gases, solid waste, soils and sediments are presented. Up-to-date research findings and innovative technologies for recovering resources, i.e. metals, fertiliser, biofuels and irrigation water, from sulfur polluted waste are provided. This book may serve both as an advanced textbook for undergraduate and graduate students majoring in environmental sciences, technology or engineering as well as a handbook for tertiary educators, researchers, professionals and policymakers who conduct research and practices in the sulfur related fields. It is essential reading for consulting companies when dealing with sulfur related environmental (bio)technologies.

Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution

Author : Piet Lens
Publisher : IWA Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1900222094
Total Pages : 565 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution by : Piet Lens

Download or read book Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution written by Piet Lens and published by IWA Publishing. This book was released on 2000-01-01 with total page 565 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Environmental Technologies to Treat Sulfur Pollution: Principles and Engineering provides a definitive and detailed discussion of state-of-the-art environmental technologies to treat pollution by sulfurous compounds of wastewater, off-gases, solid waste, soils and sediments. Special attention is given to novel bioremediation techniques that have been developed over the last 10 years. Information density is unique owing to the many figures and graphs (150), tables (over 80) and over 1500 cited literature references. A detailed subject index helps the reader to find their way through the different technological applications, making it the perfect reference work for professionals and consultants dealing with sulfur-related environmental (bio)-technologies. Contents Part I - The sulfur cycle Part II - Technologies to Desulfurise Resources Part III - Treatment of Waters Polluted by Sulfurous Compounds Part IV - Treatment of Gases Polluted by Sulfurous Compounds Part V - Treatment of Soils and Sediments Polluted by Sulfurous Compounds Part VI - Other Applications of Sulfur Cycle: Bioconversions in Environmental Engineering Part VII - Problems Related to Sulfur Cycle: Bioconversions

Review of Biological Treatment of Wastewaters Using Sulfate Reducing Bacteria

Author : Motaz Zarooq
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 52 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (986 download)

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Book Synopsis Review of Biological Treatment of Wastewaters Using Sulfate Reducing Bacteria by : Motaz Zarooq

Download or read book Review of Biological Treatment of Wastewaters Using Sulfate Reducing Bacteria written by Motaz Zarooq and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 52 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Handbook of Biological Wastewater Treatment

Author : Adrianus van Haandel
Publisher : IWA Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1780400004
Total Pages : 819 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (84 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Biological Wastewater Treatment by : Adrianus van Haandel

Download or read book Handbook of Biological Wastewater Treatment written by Adrianus van Haandel and published by IWA Publishing. This book was released on 2012-02-20 with total page 819 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The scope of this comprehensive new edition of Handbook of Biological Wastewater Treatment ranges from the design of the activated sludge system, final settlers, auxiliary units (sludge thickeners and digesters) to pre-treatment units such as primary settlers and UASB reactors. The core of the book deals with the optimized design of biological and chemical nutrient removal. The book presents the state-of-the-art theory concerning the various aspects of the activated sludge system and develops procedures for optimized cost-based design and operation. It offers a truly integrated cost-based design method that can be easily implemented in spreadsheets and adapted to the particular needs of the user. Handbook of Biological Wastewater Treatment: Second Edition incorporates valuable new material that improves the instructive qualities of the first edition. The book has a new structure that makes the material more readily understandable and the numerous additional examples clarify the text. On the website www.wastewaterhandbook.com three free excel design spreadsheets for different configurations (secondary treatment with and without primary settling and nitrogen removal) can be downloaded to get the reader started with their own design projects. New sections have been added throughout: to explain the difference between true and apparent yield while the section on the F/M ratio, and especially the reasons not to use it, has been expanded; to demonstrate the effect of the oxygen recycle to the anoxic zones on both the denitrification capacity and the concept of available nitrate is explained in more detail. the latest developments on the causes and solution to sludge bulking and scum formation to show the rapid developments of innovative nitrogen removal and sludge separation problems the anaerobic pre-treatment section is completely rewritten based on the experiences obtained from an extensive review of large full-scale UASB based sewage treatment plants a new section on industrial anaerobic wastewater treatment three new appendices have been added. These deal with the calibration of the denitrification model, empirical design guidelines for final settler design (STORA/STOWA and ATV) and with the potential for development of denitrification in the final settler. A new chapter on moving bed biofilm reactors Handbook of Biological Wastewater Treatment: Second Edition is written for post graduate students and engineers in consulting firms and environmental protection agencies. It is an invaluable resource for everybody working in the field of wastewater treatment. Lecturer support material is available when adopted for university courses. This includes course material for the first 7 modules in the form of PDF printouts and an exercise file with questions and answers and a symbol list. Authors: Prof. dr. ir. A.C. van Haandel, Federal University of Campina Grande - Brazil and Ir. J.G.M. van der Lubbe, Biothane Systems International - Veolia, The Netherlands

Sludge Reduction Technologies in Wastewater Treatment Plants

Author : Paola Foladori
Publisher : IWA Publishing
ISBN 13 : 184339278X
Total Pages : 381 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (433 download)

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Book Synopsis Sludge Reduction Technologies in Wastewater Treatment Plants by : Paola Foladori

Download or read book Sludge Reduction Technologies in Wastewater Treatment Plants written by Paola Foladori and published by IWA Publishing. This book was released on 2010-07-31 with total page 381 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sludge Reduction Technologies in Wastewater Treatment Plants is a review of the sludge reduction techniques integrated in wastewater treatment plants with detailed chapters on the most promising and most widespread techniques. The aim of the book is to update the international community on the current status of knowledge and techniques in the field of sludge reduction. It will provide a comprehensive understanding of the following issues in sludge reduction: principles of sludge reduction techniques; process configurations; potential performance; advantages and drawbacks; economics and energy consumption. This book will be essential reading for managers and technical staff of wastewater treatment plants as well as graduate students and post-graduate specialists.

Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria in Biological Treatment Wastewaters

Author : Dorota Wolicka
Publisher : Nova Science Pub Incorporated
ISBN 13 : 9781608769315
Total Pages : 58 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (693 download)

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Book Synopsis Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria in Biological Treatment Wastewaters by : Dorota Wolicka

Download or read book Sulphate-Reducing Bacteria in Biological Treatment Wastewaters written by Dorota Wolicka and published by Nova Science Pub Incorporated. This book was released on 2010 with total page 58 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Human activity is strictly linked with the production of waste, i.e., materials and substances that are undesired and cannot be used further. On the one hand these substances are natural to the environment, eliminated from further technological process by their uselessness (e.g. mining waste), or represent new products such as anthropogenic waste, being the by-product of industrial and agricultural activities. A separate group comprises municipal waste that is not linked with production but results from human dwelling. Utilisation actions aiming at neutralising and/or removal of waste are focused on substances that due to their existing or potential chemical activity may negatively influence the biosphere. Non-active substances represent alien elements in the natural environment, but due to their passive character, their utilisation is concentrated on non-conflicting storage. Active pollutants influencing the natural environment penetrate it as gaseous emanations, fluids (sewage and effluents) and solids. This book addresses this very important issue and covers the topic of restriction of emission and removal of hazardous gaseous emanations that should be conducted in places where they are formed. Imperfection of the applied technology or its lack results in atmospheric pollution. This problem can be of local (around industrial plants, e.g. chemical works, food processing plants, around farmsteads and stock farms), country or global range (emission of CO2, nitrogen compounds, gases hazardous to the ozone layer).