The Spontaneous Brain

Download The Spontaneous Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : MIT Press
ISBN 13 : 0262038072
Total Pages : 534 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (62 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Spontaneous Brain by : Georg Northoff

Download or read book The Spontaneous Brain written by Georg Northoff and published by MIT Press. This book was released on 2018-10-09 with total page 534 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An argument for a Copernican revolution in our consideration of mental features—a shift in which the world-brain problem supersedes the mind-body problem. Philosophers have long debated the mind-body problem—whether to attribute such mental features as consciousness to mind or to body. Meanwhile, neuroscientists search for empirical answers, seeking neural correlates for consciousness, self, and free will. In this book, Georg Northoff does not propose new solutions to the mind-body problem; instead, he questions the problem itself, arguing that it is an empirically, ontologically, and conceptually implausible way to address the existence and reality of mental features. We are better off, he contends, by addressing consciousness and other mental features in terms of the relationship between world and brain; philosophers should consider the world-brain problem rather than the mind-body problem. This calls for a Copernican shift in vantage point—from within the mind or brain to beyond the brain—in our consideration of mental features. Northoff, a neuroscientist, psychiatrist, and philosopher, explains that empirical evidence suggests that the brain's spontaneous activity and its spatiotemporal structure are central to aligning and integrating the brain within the world. This spatiotemporal structure allows the brain to extend beyond itself into body and world, creating the “world-brain relation” that is central to mental features. Northoff makes his argument in empirical, ontological, and epistemic-methodological terms. He discusses current models of the brain and applies these models to recent data on neuronal features underlying consciousness and proposes the world-brain relation as the ontological predisposition for consciousness.

The Secret World of the Brain

Download The Secret World of the Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Not Found
ISBN 13 : 9780233004938
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (49 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Secret World of the Brain by : Catherine Loveday

Download or read book The Secret World of the Brain written by Catherine Loveday and published by Not Found. This book was released on 2016-09 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The brain is the most important part of our anatomy - the master controller that tells the other parts of the body what to do and when to do it. This engaging new book delves into how we use our brains in everyday life and uncovers the crucial workings of this vital organ. How does our brain store memories? How does the brain process emotion? How do we recognise faces? What is dreaming? What does it mean to be conscious? How do injuries and diseases disrupt brain function? Are male and female brains any different? What is really happening in the teenage brain? From revealing how the brain controls our basic functions such as speech, vision and movement to how it determines our perceptions, contributes to our personalities and affects our emotions, this beautifully illustrated book unlocks the key questions about the brain.

Global Brain

Download Global Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Turner Publishing Company
ISBN 13 : 0470310391
Total Pages : 388 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (73 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Global Brain by : Howard Bloom

Download or read book Global Brain written by Howard Bloom and published by Turner Publishing Company. This book was released on 2008-04-21 with total page 388 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "As someone who has spent forty years in psychology with a long-standing interest in evolution, I'll just assimilate Howard Bloom's accomplishment and my amazement."-DAVID SMILLIE, Visiting Professor of Zoology, Duke University In this extraordinary follow-up to the critically acclaimed The Lucifer Principle, Howard Bloom-one of today's preeminent thinkers-offers us a bold rewrite of the evolutionary saga. He shows how plants and animals (including humans) have evolved together as components of a worldwide learning machine. He describes the network of life on Earth as one that is, in fact, a "complex adaptive system," a global brain in which each of us plays a sometimes conscious, sometimes unknowing role. and he reveals that the World Wide Web is just the latest step in the development of this brain. These are theories as important as they are radical. Informed by twenty years of interdisciplinary research, Bloom takes us on a spellbinding journey back to the big bang to let us see how its fires forged primordial sociality. As he brings us back via surprising routes, we see how our earliest bacterial ancestors built multitrillion-member research and development teams a full 3.5 billion years ago. We watch him unravel the previously unrecognized strands of interconnectedness woven by crowds of trilobites, hunting packs of dinosaurs, feathered flying lizards gathered in flocks, troops of baboons making communal decisions, and adventurous tribes of protohumans spreading across continents but still linked by primitive forms of information networking. We soon find ourselves reconsidering our place in the world. Along the way, Bloom offers us exhilarating insights into the strange tricks of body and mind that have organized a variety of life forms: spiny lobsters, which, during the Paleozoic age, participated in communal marching rituals; and bees, which, during the age of dinosaurs, conducted collective brainwork. This fascinating tour continues on to the sometimes brutal subculture wars that have spurred the growth of human civilization since the Stone Age. Bloom shows us how culture shapes our infant brains, immersing us in a matrix of truth and mass delusion that we think of as reality. Global Brain is more than just a brilliantly original contribution to the ongoing debate on the inner workings of evolution. It is a "grand vision," says the eminent evolutionary biologist David Sloan Wilson, a work that transforms our very view of who we are and why.

The Future of the Brain

Download The Future of the Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691258821
Total Pages : 312 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (912 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Future of the Brain by : Gary Marcus

Download or read book The Future of the Brain written by Gary Marcus and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2024-04-30 with total page 312 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The world's top experts take readers to the very frontiers of brain science Includes a chapter by 2014 Nobel laureates May-Britt Moser and Edvard Moser An unprecedented look at the quest to unravel the mysteries of the human brain, The Future of the Brain takes readers to the absolute frontiers of science. Original essays by leading researchers such as Christof Koch, George Church, Olaf Sporns, and May-Britt and Edvard Moser describe the spectacular technological advances that will enable us to map the more than eighty-five billion neurons in the brain, as well as the challenges that lie ahead in understanding the anticipated deluge of data and the prospects for building working simulations of the human brain. A must-read for anyone trying to understand ambitious new research programs such as the Obama administration's BRAIN Initiative and the European Union's Human Brain Project, The Future of the Brain sheds light on the breathtaking implications of brain science for medicine, psychiatry, and even human consciousness itself. Contributors include: Misha Ahrens, Ned Block, Matteo Carandini, George Church, John Donoghue, Chris Eliasmith, Simon Fisher, Mike Hawrylycz, Sean Hill, Christof Koch, Leah Krubitzer, Michel Maharbiz, Kevin Mitchell, Edvard Moser, May-Britt Moser, David Poeppel, Krishna Shenoy, Olaf Sporns, Anthony Zador.

The Global Brain

Download The Global Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Tarcher
ISBN 13 : 9780874772487
Total Pages : 251 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (724 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Global Brain by : Peter Russell

Download or read book The Global Brain written by Peter Russell and published by Tarcher. This book was released on 1983-01-01 with total page 251 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Drawing on the views of scientists and philosophers, including Lovelock, Sheldrake, and Aurobindo, a psychologist argues that the mounting complexity of today's world may lead to the convergence of society into a single, global consciousness

The Nocturnal Brain

Download The Nocturnal Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : St. Martin's Press
ISBN 13 : 125020271X
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (52 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Nocturnal Brain by : Dr. Guy Leschziner

Download or read book The Nocturnal Brain written by Dr. Guy Leschziner and published by St. Martin's Press. This book was released on 2019-07-23 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A renowned neurologist shares the true stories of people unable to get a good night’s rest in The Nocturnal Brain: Nightmares, Neuroscience, and the Secret World of Sleep, a fascinating exploration of the symptoms and syndromes behind sleep disorders. For Dr. Guy Leschziner’s patients, there is no rest for the weary in mind and body. Insomnia, narcolepsy, night terrors, apnea, and sleepwalking are just a sampling of conditions afflicting sufferers who cannot sleep—and their experiences in trying are the stuff of nightmares. Demoniac hallucinations frighten people into paralysis. Restless legs rock both the sleepless and their sleeping partners with unpredictable and uncontrollable kicking. Out-of-sync circadian rhythms confuse the natural body clock’s days and nights. Then there are the extreme cases. A woman in a state of deep sleep who gets dressed, unlocks her car, and drives for several miles before returning to bed. The man who has spent decades cleaning out kitchens while “sleep-eating.” The teenager prone to the serious, yet unfortunately nicknamed Sleeping Beauty Syndrome stuck in a cycle of excessive unconsciousness, binge eating, and uncharacteristic displays of aggression and hypersexuality while awake. With compassionate stories of his patients and their conditions, Dr. Leschziner illustrates the neuroscience behind our sleeping minds, revealing the many biological and psychological factors necessary in getting the rest that will not only maintain our physical and mental health, but improve our cognitive abilities and overall happiness.

Learning with a Visual Brain in an Auditory World

Download Learning with a Visual Brain in an Auditory World PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : AAPC Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9781931282383
Total Pages : 340 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (823 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Learning with a Visual Brain in an Auditory World by : Ellyn Lucas Arwood

Download or read book Learning with a Visual Brain in an Auditory World written by Ellyn Lucas Arwood and published by AAPC Publishing. This book was released on 2007 with total page 340 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Children diagnosed with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD) often present parents and educators with perplexing symptoms. This book presents strategies that are based on the language of the way individuals with ASD learn.

The Brain and the Inner World

Download The Brain and the Inner World PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429920237
Total Pages : 342 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (299 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Brain and the Inner World by : Mark Solms

Download or read book The Brain and the Inner World written by Mark Solms and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018-04-24 with total page 342 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work is an eagerly awaited account of this momentous and ongoing revolution, elaborated for the general reader by two pioneers of the field. The book takes the nonspecialist reader on a guided tour through the exciting new discoveries, pointing out along the way how old psychodynamic concepts are being forged into a new scientific framework for understanding subjective experience – in health and disease.

Excellence through Mind-Brain Development

Download Excellence through Mind-Brain Development PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317138163
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (171 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Excellence through Mind-Brain Development by : Harald S. Harung

Download or read book Excellence through Mind-Brain Development written by Harald S. Harung and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-03-03 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Everyone seeks to attain excellence and happiness in their lives, yet world-class performance is rare. Research shows that education accounts for only 1 per cent of performance levels, work experience only 3 per cent, and age in adults 0 per cent. Dr Harald S. Harung and Dr Frederick Travis looked deeply and unearthed the secret of world-class performance: Excellence in any profession or activity depends on the single variable of high mind-brain development. By mind-brain development, the authors refer to a much more comprehensive transformation than what is commonly understood - they are talking about a sequence of fundamental shifts to new realities in the way our brain functions and in the way we look upon ourselves, others, and the world. For success, who we are is far more important than the knowledge, skills, and relationships we have and what we do - because with higher mind-brain development, our knowledge and skills become more useful, our relationships more enriching, and our actions more effective. As part of presenting the secrets of world-class performance, the book details the inspiring peak experiences that underlie top performance and how top performers have a more orderly, restfully alert, and economic brain than average performers. This research-based book will show you the many benefits of higher mind-brain development and how to effortlessly attain it.

Natural Learning for a Connected World

Download Natural Learning for a Connected World PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Teachers College Press
ISBN 13 : 0807751898
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (77 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Natural Learning for a Connected World by : Renate Nummela Caine

Download or read book Natural Learning for a Connected World written by Renate Nummela Caine and published by Teachers College Press. This book was released on 2011-04-08 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Why do video games fascinate kids so much that they will spend hours pursuing a difficult skill? Why don't they apply this kind of intensity to their school work? In their most penetrating and important work in years, these two leaders in the field of brain-based education build a bridge to the future of education with a dynamic model of teaching that works for all grade levels and in all cultural and ethnic groups. The authors' education model, the "Guided Experience Approach," is based on the way that biologists see learning as a totally natural, continuous interaction between perception and action. Natural Learning for a Connected World provides a practical, step-by-step description and successful examples from practice of this perception action cycle so that we can finally provide the learning environments essential for our children to thrive in the knowledge age.

Discovering the Brain

Download Discovering the Brain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309045290
Total Pages : 195 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (9 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Discovering the Brain by : National Academy of Sciences

Download or read book Discovering the Brain written by National Academy of Sciences and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 1992-01-01 with total page 195 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The brain ... There is no other part of the human anatomy that is so intriguing. How does it develop and function and why does it sometimes, tragically, degenerate? The answers are complex. In Discovering the Brain, science writer Sandra Ackerman cuts through the complexity to bring this vital topic to the public. The 1990s were declared the "Decade of the Brain" by former President Bush, and the neuroscience community responded with a host of new investigations and conferences. Discovering the Brain is based on the Institute of Medicine conference, Decade of the Brain: Frontiers in Neuroscience and Brain Research. Discovering the Brain is a "field guide" to the brainâ€"an easy-to-read discussion of the brain's physical structure and where functions such as language and music appreciation lie. Ackerman examines: How electrical and chemical signals are conveyed in the brain. The mechanisms by which we see, hear, think, and pay attentionâ€"and how a "gut feeling" actually originates in the brain. Learning and memory retention, including parallels to computer memory and what they might tell us about our own mental capacity. Development of the brain throughout the life span, with a look at the aging brain. Ackerman provides an enlightening chapter on the connection between the brain's physical condition and various mental disorders and notes what progress can realistically be made toward the prevention and treatment of stroke and other ailments. Finally, she explores the potential for major advances during the "Decade of the Brain," with a look at medical imaging techniquesâ€"what various technologies can and cannot tell usâ€"and how the public and private sectors can contribute to continued advances in neuroscience. This highly readable volume will provide the public and policymakersâ€"and many scientists as wellâ€"with a helpful guide to understanding the many discoveries that are sure to be announced throughout the "Decade of the Brain."

Livewired

Download Livewired PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Vintage
ISBN 13 : 0307907503
Total Pages : 320 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (79 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Livewired by : David Eagleman

Download or read book Livewired written by David Eagleman and published by Vintage. This book was released on 2020-08-25 with total page 320 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Eagleman renders the secrets of the brain’s adaptability into a truly compelling page-turner.” —Khaled Hosseini, author of The Kite Runner “Livewired reads wonderfully like what a book would be if it were written by Oliver Sacks and William Gibson, sitting on Carl Sagan’s front lawn.” —The Wall Street Journal What does drug withdrawal have in common with a broken heart? Why is the enemy of memory not time but other memories? How can a blind person learn to see with her tongue, or a deaf person learn to hear with his skin? Why did many people in the 1980s mistakenly perceive book pages to be slightly red in color? Why is the world’s best archer armless? Might we someday control a robot with our thoughts, just as we do our fingers and toes? Why do we dream at night, and what does that have to do with the rotation of the Earth? The answers to these questions are right behind our eyes. The greatest technology we have ever discovered on our planet is the three-pound organ carried in the vault of the skull. This book is not simply about what the brain is; it is about what it does. The magic of the brain is not found in the parts it’s made of but in the way those parts unceasingly reweave themselves in an electric, living fabric. In Livewired, you will surf the leading edge of neuroscience atop the anecdotes and metaphors that have made David Eagleman one of the best scientific translators of our generation. Covering decades of research to the present day, Livewired also presents new discoveries from Eagleman’s own laboratory, from synesthesia to dreaming to wearable neurotech devices that revolutionize how we think about the senses.

The Master and His Emissary

Download The Master and His Emissary PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Yale University Press
ISBN 13 : 0300245920
Total Pages : 615 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (2 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Master and His Emissary by : Iain McGilchrist

Download or read book The Master and His Emissary written by Iain McGilchrist and published by Yale University Press. This book was released on 2019-03-26 with total page 615 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A new edition of the bestselling classic – published with a special introduction to mark its 10th anniversary This pioneering account sets out to understand the structure of the human brain – the place where mind meets matter. Until recently, the left hemisphere of our brain has been seen as the ‘rational’ side, the superior partner to the right. But is this distinction true? Drawing on a vast body of experimental research, Iain McGilchrist argues while our left brain makes for a wonderful servant, it is a very poor master. As he shows, it is the right side which is the more reliable and insightful. Without it, our world would be mechanistic – stripped of depth, colour and value.

Brain Fever: How Vaccines Prevent Meningitis And Other Killer Diseases

Download Brain Fever: How Vaccines Prevent Meningitis And Other Killer Diseases PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : World Scientific
ISBN 13 : 1786349892
Total Pages : 265 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (863 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Brain Fever: How Vaccines Prevent Meningitis And Other Killer Diseases by : Richard Moxon

Download or read book Brain Fever: How Vaccines Prevent Meningitis And Other Killer Diseases written by Richard Moxon and published by World Scientific. This book was released on 2021-06-25 with total page 265 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Brain Fever, the internationally renowned medical scientist, Richard Moxon FRS, shares his experiences of bacterial meningitis, a fearful and devastating infection of the brain. In a clear, non-technical style, he explains what meningitis is, what causes it, who gets it and how research has come up with vaccines that can prevent it.A paediatrician, Moxon engages the reader in a compelling story of how chance, opportunity and passion drew him into researching the bacteria that are the dangerous assassins of unsuspecting, previously healthy people, especially young children. Moxon traces the story of his involvement as one of the extraordinary and inspiring group of scientists who pioneered a milestone in medical history: the development of vaccines to prevent bacterial meningitis.In this must-read book, Brain Fever provides expert insight into what it takes to develop a vaccine. As we are learning from the COVID-19 pandemic, it is vaccines that we rely on to fight and overcome the devastation caused by virulent pathogens. His message is clear and challenging: no other intervention in the history of medicine confers a greater public health benefit than immunisation.This book is a 2022 Nautilus Book Awards winner.This book is a 2021 Best Book Award-Winning Finalist (sponsored by American Book Fest).Related Link(s)

Reader, Come Home

Download Reader, Come Home PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : HarperCollins
ISBN 13 : 0062388797
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (623 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reader, Come Home by : Maryanne Wolf

Download or read book Reader, Come Home written by Maryanne Wolf and published by HarperCollins. This book was released on 2018-08-14 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The author of the acclaimed Proust and the Squid follows up with a lively, ambitious, and deeply informative book that considers the future of the reading brain and our capacity for critical thinking, empathy, and reflection as we become increasingly dependent on digital technologies. A decade ago, Maryanne Wolf’s Proust and the Squid revealed what we know about how the brain learns to read and how reading changes the way we think and feel. Since then, the ways we process written language have changed dramatically with many concerned about both their own changes and that of children. New research on the reading brain chronicles these changes in the brains of children and adults as they learn to read while immersed in a digitally dominated medium. Drawing deeply on this research, this book comprises a series of letters Wolf writes to us—her beloved readers—to describe her concerns and her hopes about what is happening to the reading brain as it unavoidably changes to adapt to digital mediums. Wolf raises difficult questions, including: Will children learn to incorporate the full range of "deep reading" processes that are at the core of the expert reading brain? Will the mix of a seemingly infinite set of distractions for children’s attention and their quick access to immediate, voluminous information alter their ability to think for themselves? With information at their fingertips, will the next generation learn to build their own storehouse of knowledge, which could impede the ability to make analogies and draw inferences from what they know? Will all these influences change the formation in children and the use in adults of "slower" cognitive processes like critical thinking, personal reflection, imagination, and empathy that comprise deep reading and that influence both how we think and how we live our lives? How can we preserve deep reading processes in future iterations of the reading brain? Concerns about attention span, critical reasoning, and over-reliance on technology are never just about children—Wolf herself has found that, though she is a reading expert, her ability to read deeply has been impacted as she has become increasingly dependent on screens. Wolf draws on neuroscience, literature, education, and philosophy and blends historical, literary, and scientific facts with down-to-earth examples and warm anecdotes to illuminate complex ideas that culminate in a proposal for a biliterate reading brain. Provocative and intriguing, Reader, Come Home is a roadmap that provides a cautionary but hopeful perspective on the impact of technology on our brains and our most essential intellectual capacities—and what this could mean for our future.

Brain Freeze: World Book Day 2018

Download Brain Freeze: World Book Day 2018 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Penguin UK
ISBN 13 : 0241334225
Total Pages : 112 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (413 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Brain Freeze: World Book Day 2018 by : Tom Fletcher

Download or read book Brain Freeze: World Book Day 2018 written by Tom Fletcher and published by Penguin UK. This book was released on 2018-02-22 with total page 112 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A little girl discovers that eating ice cream from her grandfather's old ice-cream truck gives her the power to travel through time, in this brilliant, funny and heartwarming story from bestselling author Tom Fletcher.

Global Brain Singularity

Download Global Brain Singularity PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030469662
Total Pages : 339 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (34 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Global Brain Singularity by : Cadell Last

Download or read book Global Brain Singularity written by Cadell Last and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-07-30 with total page 339 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book introduces readers to global brain singularity through a logical meditation on the temporal dynamics of the universal process. Global brain singularity is conceived of as a future metasystem of human civilization that represents a qualitatively higher coherence of order. To better understand the potential of this phenomenon, the book begins with an overview of universal history. The focus then shifts to the structure of human systems, and the notion that contemporary global civilization must mediate the emergence of a commons that will transform the future of politics, economics and psychosocial life in general. In this context the book presents our species as biocultural evolutionary agents attempting to create a novel and independent domain of technocultural evolution that affords us new levels of freedom. Lastly, the book underscores the internal depths of the present moment, structured by a division between subject and object. The nature of the interaction between subject and object would appear to govern the mechanics of a spiritual process that is key to understanding the meaning of singularity inclusive of observers. Given its scope, the book will appeal to readers interested in systems approaches to the emerging world society, especially historians, philosophers and social scientists.