The Strange Career Of Bilingual Education In Texas 1836 1981

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The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, 1836-1981

Author : Carlos Kevin Blanton
Publisher : Texas A&M University Press
ISBN 13 : 9781585446025
Total Pages : 220 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, 1836-1981 by : Carlos Kevin Blanton

Download or read book The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, 1836-1981 written by Carlos Kevin Blanton and published by Texas A&M University Press. This book was released on 2007 with total page 220 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Awarded the Texas State Historical Association's Coral Horton Tullis Memorial Prize; presented March 2005 Despite controversies over current educational practices, Texas boasts a rich and vibrant bilingual tradition-and not just for Spanish-English instruction, but for Czech, German, Polish, and Dutch as well. Throughout the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Texas educational policymakers embraced, ignored, rejected, outlawed, then once again embraced this tradition. In The Strange Career of Bilingual Education in Texas, author Carlos Blanton traces the educational policies and their underlying rationales, from Stephen F. Austin's proposal in the 1830s to "Mexicanize" Anglo children by teaching them Spanish along with English and French, through the 1981 passage of the most encompassing bilingual education law in the state's history. Blanton draws on primary materials, such as the handwritten records of county administrators and the minutes of state education meetings, and presents the Texas experience in light of national trends and movements, such as Progressive Education, the Americanization Movement, and the Good Neighbor Movement. By tracing the many changes that eventually led to the re-establishment of bilingual education in its modern form in the 1960s and the 1981 passage of a landmark state law, Blanton reconnects Texas with its bilingual past. CARLOS KEVIN BLANTON, an assistant professor of history at Texas A&M University, earned his Ph.D. from Rice University. His research in Mexican American educational history has been published in journals such as the Pacific Historical Review and Social Science Quarterly.

Building the Federal Schoolhouse

Author : Douglas S. Reed
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199838496
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (998 download)

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Book Synopsis Building the Federal Schoolhouse by : Douglas S. Reed

Download or read book Building the Federal Schoolhouse written by Douglas S. Reed and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2014-05-29 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Over the past fifty years, the federal government's efforts to reform American public education have transformed U.S. schools from locally-run enterprises into complex systems jointly constructed by federal, state, and local actors. The construction of this federal schoolhouse-an educational system with common national expectations and practices-has fundamentally altered both education politics and the norms governing educational policy at the local level. Building the Federal Schoolhouse examines these issues through an in-depth, fifty-year examination of federal educational policies in the community of Alexandria, Virginia, a wealthy yet socially diverse suburb of Washington, D.C. The epochal social transformations that swept through America in the past half century hit Alexandria with particular force, transforming its Jim Crow school system into a new immigrant gateway district within two generations. Along the way, the school system has struggled to provide quality education for special needs students, and has sought to overcome the legacies of tracking and segregated learning while simultaneously retaining upper-middle class students. Most recently, it has grappled with state and federally imposed accountability measures that seek to boost educational outcomes. All of these policy initiatives have contended with the existing political regime within Alexandria, at times forcing it to a breaking point, and at other times reconstructing it. All the while, the local expectations and governing realities of administrators, parents, politicians, and voters have sharply constrained federal initiatives, limiting their scope when in conflict with local commitments and amplifying them when they align. Through an extensive use of local archives, contemporary accounts, school data, and interviews, Douglas S. Reed not only paints an intimate portrait of the conflicts that the federal schoolhouse's creation has wrought in Alexandria, but also documents the successes of the federal commitment to greater educational opportunity. In so doing, he highlights the complexity of the American education state and the centrality of local regimes and local historical context to federal educational reform efforts.

Bilingual Public Schooling in the United States

Author : P. Ramsey
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 0230106099
Total Pages : 278 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (31 download)

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Book Synopsis Bilingual Public Schooling in the United States by : P. Ramsey

Download or read book Bilingual Public Schooling in the United States written by P. Ramsey and published by Springer. This book was released on 2010-03-29 with total page 278 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This history of one of the most contentious educational issues in America examines bilingual instruction in the United States from the common school era to the recent federal involvement in the 1960s and 1970s. Drawing from school reports, student narratives, legal resources, policy documents, and other primary sources, the work teases out the underlying agendas and patterns in bilingual schooling during much of America s history. The study demonstrates clearly how the broader context - the cultural, intellectual, religious, demographic, economic, and political forces - shaped the contours of dual-language instruction in America between the 1840s and 1960s. Ramsey s work fills a crucial void in the educational literature and addresses not only historians, linguists, and bilingual scholars, but also policymakers and practitioners in the field.

A History of Bilingual Education in the US

Author : Sarah C.K. Moore
Publisher : Multilingual Matters
ISBN 13 : 1788924266
Total Pages : 121 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (889 download)

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Book Synopsis A History of Bilingual Education in the US by : Sarah C.K. Moore

Download or read book A History of Bilingual Education in the US written by Sarah C.K. Moore and published by Multilingual Matters. This book was released on 2021-03-24 with total page 121 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book traces a history of bilingual education in the US, unveiling the pervasive role of politics and its influence on integrity of policy implementation. It introduces readers to once nationwide, systemic supports for diverse bilingual educational programs and situates particular instances and phases of its expansion and decline within related sociopolitical backdrops. The book includes overlooked details about key leaders and developments that affected programs under the Bilingual Education Act. It delves deeply into a past infrastructure: what it entailed, how it worked, and who was involved. This volume is essential reading for researchers, students, administrators, education leaders, bilingual advocates and related stakeholders invested in understanding the history of language education in the US for future planning, expansion, and enhancement of bilingual educational programs and promotion of equity and access in schooling.

Higher Education in Texas

Author : Charles R. Matthews
Publisher : University of North Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 157441724X
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (744 download)

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Book Synopsis Higher Education in Texas by : Charles R. Matthews

Download or read book Higher Education in Texas written by Charles R. Matthews and published by University of North Texas Press. This book was released on 2018-02-15 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Higher Education in Texas is the first book to tell the history, defining events, and critical participants in the development of higher education in Texas from approximately 1838 to 1970. Charles Matthews, Chancellor Emeritus of the Texas State University System, begins the story with the land grant policies of the Spanish, Mexicans, Republic of Texas, and the State of Texas that led to the growth of Texas. Religious organizations supplied the first of many colleges, years before the Texas Legislature began to fund and support public colleges and universities. Matthews devotes a chapter to the junior/community colleges and their impact on providing a low-cost education alternative for local students. These community colleges also played a major role in economic development in their communities. Further chapters explore the access and equity in educating women, African Americans, and Hispanics.

Encyclopedia of Bilingual Education

Author : Josue M. Gonzalez
Publisher : SAGE
ISBN 13 : 1412937205
Total Pages : 1057 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (129 download)

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Book Synopsis Encyclopedia of Bilingual Education by : Josue M. Gonzalez

Download or read book Encyclopedia of Bilingual Education written by Josue M. Gonzalez and published by SAGE. This book was released on 2008-06-05 with total page 1057 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is arranged alphabetically from Academic English to Zelasko, Nancy.

The Handbook of Dual Language Bilingual Education

Author : Juan A. Freire
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 100093389X
Total Pages : 745 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (9 download)

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Book Synopsis The Handbook of Dual Language Bilingual Education by : Juan A. Freire

Download or read book The Handbook of Dual Language Bilingual Education written by Juan A. Freire and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2023-09-29 with total page 745 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This handbook presents a state-of-the-art overview of dual language bilingual education (DLBE) research, programs, pedagogy, and practice. Organized around four sections—theoretical foundations; key issues and trends; school-based practices; and teacher and administrator preparation—the volume comprehensively addresses major and emerging topics in the field. With contributions from expert scholars, the handbook highlights programs that honor the assets of language-minoritized and marginalized students and provides empirically grounded guidance for asset-based instruction. Chapters cover historical and policy considerations, leadership, family relations, professional development, community partnerships, race, class, gender, and more. Synthesizing major issues, discussing central themes and advancing policy and practice, this handbook is a seminal volume and definitive reference text in bilingual/second language education.

Chicana/o Struggles for Education

Author : Guadalupe San Miguel
Publisher : Texas A&M University Press
ISBN 13 : 160344937X
Total Pages : 258 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (34 download)

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Book Synopsis Chicana/o Struggles for Education by : Guadalupe San Miguel

Download or read book Chicana/o Struggles for Education written by Guadalupe San Miguel and published by Texas A&M University Press. This book was released on 2013-06-03 with total page 258 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Much of the history of Mexican American educational reform efforts has focused on campaigns to eliminate discrimination in public schools. However, as historian Guadalupe San Miguel demonstrates in Chicana/o Struggles for Education: Activisim in the Community, the story is much broader and more varied than that. While activists certainly challenged discrimination, they also worked for specific public school reforms and sought private schooling opportunities, utilizing new patterns of contestation and advocacy. In documenting and reviewing these additional strategies, San Miguel’s nuanced overview and analysis offers enhanced insight into the quest for equal educational opportunity to new generations of students. San Miguel addresses questions such as what factors led to change in the 1960s and in later years; who the individuals and organizations were that led the movements in this period and what motivated them to get involved; and what strategies were pursued, how they were chosen, and how successful they were. He argues that while Chicana/o activists continued to challenge school segregation in the 1960s as earlier generations had, they broadened their efforts to address new concerns such as school funding, testing, English-only curricula, the exclusion of undocumented immigrants, and school closings. They also advocated cultural pride and memory, inclusion of the Mexican American community in school governance, and opportunities to seek educational excellence in private religious, nationalist, and secular schools. The profusion of strategies has not erased patterns of de facto segregation and unequal academic achievement, San Miguel concludes, but it has played a key role in expanding educational opportunities. The actions he describes have expanded, extended, and diversified the historic struggle for Mexican American education.

Teacher Preparation for Bilingual Student Populations

Author : Belinda Bustos Flores
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136966110
Total Pages : 273 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (369 download)

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Book Synopsis Teacher Preparation for Bilingual Student Populations by : Belinda Bustos Flores

Download or read book Teacher Preparation for Bilingual Student Populations written by Belinda Bustos Flores and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2011-01-04 with total page 273 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The growing number of bilingual students in public schools coupled with a critical shortage of teachers specially prepared to serve this population calls for a critical examination of policies and practices in bilingual and ESL teacher preparation. This volume focuses on understanding the structural, substantive, and contextual elements of preparation programs, and provides transformative guidelines for creating Educar signature programs. Designed to improve the practice of teacher preparation by promoting dialogic conversations and applications of praxis in the preparation of bilingual/ESL teacher candidates, it emphasizes that exemplary teacher preparation requires transformative teacher educators. Simultaneously organizing the scholarship in the field and advancing new understandings, this book is must-have resource for current and future teacher educators. Contributors include Maria Brisk, Sylvia Celédon-Pattichis, Lourdes Diaz-Soto, Eugene García, Virginia Gonzáles, Guillermo Solano-Flores, Maria Torres-Guzman, Carmen Mercado, Bertha Pérez, Mari Riojas-Cortez, Francisco Rios, Concepción Valadez, and Angela Valenzuela.

Classroom Wars

Author : Natalia Mehlman Petrzela
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199358478
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (993 download)

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Book Synopsis Classroom Wars by : Natalia Mehlman Petrzela

Download or read book Classroom Wars written by Natalia Mehlman Petrzela and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2015-03-03 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The schoolhouse has long been a crucible in the construction and contestation of the political concept of "family values." Through Spanish-bilingual and sex education, moderates and conservatives in California came to define the family as a politicized and racialized site in the late 1960s and 1970s. Sex education became a vital arena in the culture wars as cultural conservatives imagined the family as imperiled by morally lax progressives and liberals who advocated for these programs attempted to manage the onslaught of sexual explicitness in broader culture. Many moderates, however, doubted the propriety of addressing such sensitive issues outside the home. Bilingual education, meanwhile, was condemned as a symbol of wasteful federal spending on ethically questionable curricula and an intrusion on local prerogative. Spanish-language bilingual-bicultural programs may seem less relevant to the politics of family, but many Latino parents and students attempted to assert their authority, against great resistance, in impassioned demands to incorporate their cultural and linguistic heritage into the classroom. Both types of educational programs, in their successful implementation and in the reaction they inspired, highlight the rightward turn and enduring progressivism in postwar American political culture. In Classroom Wars, Natalia Mehlman Petrzela charts how a state and a citizenry deeply committed to public education as an engine of civic and moral education navigated the massive changes brought about by the 1960s, including the sexual revolution, school desegregation, and a dramatic increase in Latino immigration. She traces the mounting tensions over educational progressivism, cultural and moral decay, and fiscal improvidence, using sources ranging from policy documents to student newspapers, from course evaluations to oral histories. Petrzela reveals how a growing number of Americans fused values about family, personal, and civic morality, which galvanized a powerful politics that engaged many Californians and, ultimately, many Americans. In doing so, they blurred the distinction between public and private and inspired some of the fiercest classroom wars in American history. Taking readers from the cultures of Orange County mega-churches to Berkeley coffeehouses, Natalia Mehlman Petrzela's history of these classroom controversies sheds light on the bitterness of the battles over diversity we continue to wage today and their influence on schools and society nationwide.

A Promising Problem

Author : Carlos Kevin Blanton
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 1477310126
Total Pages : 224 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (773 download)

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Book Synopsis A Promising Problem by : Carlos Kevin Blanton

Download or read book A Promising Problem written by Carlos Kevin Blanton and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2016-03-08 with total page 224 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Chicana/o history has reached an intriguing juncture. While academic and intellectual studies are embracing new, highly nuanced perspectives on race, class, gender, education, identity, and community, the field itself continues to be viewed as a battleground, subject to attacks from outside academia by those who claim that the discipline promotes racial hatred and anti-Americanism. Against a backdrop of deportations and voter suppression targeting Latinos, A Promising Problem presents the optimistic voices of scholars who call for sophisticated solutions while embracing transnationalism and the reality of multiple, overlapping identities. Showcasing a variety of new directions, this anthology spans topics such as growth and reassessment in Chicana/o history manifested in a disruption of nationalism and geographic essentialism, the impact of legal history, interracial relations and the experiences of Latino subpopulations in the US South, race and the politics of religious history, transborder feminism in the early twentieth century, and aspirations for a field that increasingly demonstrates the relational dynamics of cultural production. As they reflect on the state of their field, the contributors offer significant insights into sociology, psychology, anthropology, political science, education, and literature, while tracing the history of activism throughout the last century and debating the very concepts of "Chicano" and "Chicano history." Although the political landscape is fraught with closed-off rhetoric, A Promising Problem encourages diversity of thought and opens the possibilities of historical imagination.

The Struggle in Black and Brown

Author : Brian D Behnken
Publisher : U of Nebraska Press
ISBN 13 : 0803262744
Total Pages : 312 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (32 download)

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Book Synopsis The Struggle in Black and Brown by : Brian D Behnken

Download or read book The Struggle in Black and Brown written by Brian D Behnken and published by U of Nebraska Press. This book was released on 2012-01-01 with total page 312 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It might seem that African Americans and Mexican Americans would have common cause in matters of civil rights. This volume, which considers relations between blacks and browns during the civil rights era, carefully examines the complex and multifaceted realities that complicate such assumptions—and that revise our view of both the civil rights struggle and black-brown relations in recent history. Unique in its focus, innovative in its methods, and broad in its approach to various locales and time periods, the book provides key perspectives to understanding the development of America’s ethnic and sociopolitical landscape. These essays focus chiefly on the Southwest, where Mexican Americans and African Americans have had a long history of civil rights activism. Among the cases the authors take up are the unification of black and Chicano civil rights and labor groups in California; divisions between Mexican Americans and African Americans generated by the War on Poverty; and cultural connections established by black and Chicano musicians during the period. Together these cases present the first truly nuanced picture of the conflict and cooperation, goodwill and animosity, unity and disunity that played a critical role in the history of both black-brown relations and the battle for civil rights. Their insights are especially timely, as black-brown relations occupy an increasingly important role in the nation’s public life.

Texas Mexican Americans and Postwar Civil Rights

Author : Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 0292767528
Total Pages : 190 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (927 download)

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Book Synopsis Texas Mexican Americans and Postwar Civil Rights by : Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez

Download or read book Texas Mexican Americans and Postwar Civil Rights written by Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2015-07-15 with total page 190 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: After World War II, Mexican American veterans returned home to lead the civil rights struggles of the fifties, sixties, and seventies. Many of their stories have been recorded by the Voces Oral History Project (formerly the U.S. Latino & Latina World War II Oral History Project), founded and directed by Maggie Rivas-Rodriguez at the University of Texas at Austin School of Journalism. In this volume, she draws upon the vast resources of the Voces Project, as well as archives in other parts of the country, to tell the stories of three little-known advancements in Mexican American civil rights. The first two stories recount local civil rights efforts that typified the grassroots activism of Mexican Americans across the Southwest. One records the successful effort led by parents to integrate the Alpine, Texas, public schools in 1969—fifteen years after the U.S. Supreme Court ruled that separate schools were inherently unconstitutional. The second describes how El Paso's first Mexican American mayor, Raymond Telles, quietly challenged institutionalized racism to integrate the city's police and fire departments, thus opening civil service employment to Mexican Americans. The final account provides the first history of the early days of the Mexican American Legal Defense and Educational Fund (MALDEF) and its founder Pete Tijerina Jr. from MALDEF's incorporation in San Antonio in 1968 until its move to San Francisco in 1972.

Reverberations of Racial Violence

Author : Sonia Hernández
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 147732271X
Total Pages : 323 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (773 download)

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Book Synopsis Reverberations of Racial Violence by : Sonia Hernández

Download or read book Reverberations of Racial Violence written by Sonia Hernández and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2021-06-15 with total page 323 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Between 1910 and 1920, thousands of Mexican Americans and Mexican nationals were killed along the Texas border. The killers included strangers and neighbors, vigilantes and law enforcement officers—in particular, Texas Rangers. Despite a 1919 investigation of the state-sanctioned violence, no one in authority was ever held responsible. Reverberations of Racial Violence gathers fourteen essays on this dark chapter in American history. Contributors explore the impact of civil rights advocates, such as José Tomás Canales, the sole Mexican-American representative in the Texas State Legislature between 1905 and 1921. The investigation he spearheaded emerges as a historical touchstone, one in which witnesses testified in detail to the extrajudicial killings carried out by state agents. Other chapters situate anti-Mexican racism in the context of the era's rampant and more fully documented violence against African Americans. Contributors also address the roles of women in responding to the violence, as well as the many ways in which the killings have continued to weigh on communities of color in Texas. Taken together, the essays provide an opportunity to move beyond the more standard Black-white paradigm in reflecting on the broad history of American nation-making, the nation’s rampant racial violence, and civil rights activism.

Reading, Writing, and Revolution

Author : Philis Barragán Goetz
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 1477320946
Total Pages : 247 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (773 download)

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Book Synopsis Reading, Writing, and Revolution by : Philis Barragán Goetz

Download or read book Reading, Writing, and Revolution written by Philis Barragán Goetz and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2020-05-05 with total page 247 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 2022 National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies Book Award Tejas Foco Non-fiction Book Award, National Association for Chicana and Chicano Studies 2021 Tejano Book Prize, Tejano Genealogy Society of Austin 2021 Jim Parish Award for Documentation and Publication of Local and Regional History, Webb County Heritage Foundation 2021 Runner-up, Ramirez Family Award for Most Significant Scholarly Book The first book on the history of escuelitas, Reading, Writing, and Revolution examines the integral role these grassroots community schools played in shaping Mexican American identity. Language has long functioned as a signifier of power in the United States. In Texas, as elsewhere in the Southwest, ethnic Mexicans’ relationship to education—including their enrollment in the Spanish-language community schools called escuelitas—served as a vehicle to negotiate that power. Situating the history of escuelitas within the contexts of modernization, progressivism, public education, the Mexican Revolution, and immigration, Reading, Writing, and Revolution traces how the proliferation and decline of these community schools helped shape Mexican American identity. Philis M. Barragán Goetz argues that the history of escuelitas is not only a story of resistance in the face of Anglo hegemony but also a complex and nuanced chronicle of ethnic Mexican cultural negotiation. She shows how escuelitas emerged and thrived to meet a diverse set of unfulfilled needs, then dwindled as later generations of Mexican Americans campaigned for educational integration. Drawing on extensive archival, genealogical, and oral history research, Barragán Goetz unravels a forgotten narrative at the crossroads of language and education as well as race and identity.

Twentieth-century Texas

Author : John Woodrow Storey
Publisher : University of North Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 1574412450
Total Pages : 487 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (744 download)

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Book Synopsis Twentieth-century Texas by : John Woodrow Storey

Download or read book Twentieth-century Texas written by John Woodrow Storey and published by University of North Texas Press. This book was released on 2008 with total page 487 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A collection of fifteen essays which cover Indians, Mexican Americans, African Americans, women, religion, war on the homefront, music, literature, film, art, sports, philanthropy, education, the environment, and science and technology in twentieth-century Texas.

The Bilingual School in the United States

Author : Paul J. Ramsey
Publisher : IAP
ISBN 13 : 1617358002
Total Pages : 227 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (173 download)

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Book Synopsis The Bilingual School in the United States by : Paul J. Ramsey

Download or read book The Bilingual School in the United States written by Paul J. Ramsey and published by IAP. This book was released on 2012-06-01 with total page 227 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This much-needed volume is an edited collection of primary sources that document the history of bilingual education in U.S. public schools during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Part I of the volume examines the development of dual-language programs for immigrants, colonized Mexicans, and Native Americans during the nineteenth century. Part II considers the attacks on bilingual education during the Progressive-era drive for an English-only curriculum and during the First World War. Part III explores the resurgence of bilingual activities, particularly among Spanish speakers and Native Americans, during the interwar period and details the rise of the federal government’s involvement in bilingual instruction during the post-WWII decades. Part IV of the volume examines the recent campaigns against bilingual education and explores dual-language practices in today’s classrooms. A compilation of school reports, letters, government documents, and other primary sources, this volume provides rich insights into the history of this very contentious educational policy and practice and will be of great interest to historians and language scholars, as well as to educational practitioners and policymakers.