The Impact Of Improved Irrigation Systems On Water Scarcity And Sustainable Development

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The Impact of Improved Irrigation Systems on Water Scarcity and Sustainable Development

Author : Farah Ahmed Z. Deghaidy
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 84 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (96 download)

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Book Synopsis The Impact of Improved Irrigation Systems on Water Scarcity and Sustainable Development by : Farah Ahmed Z. Deghaidy

Download or read book The Impact of Improved Irrigation Systems on Water Scarcity and Sustainable Development written by Farah Ahmed Z. Deghaidy and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page 84 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract: Water plays a crucial role in the economic development of countries worldwide. Egypt is a developing country facing serious challenges for achieving sustainable development because of water scarcity problems especially, within the agricultural sector. Water scarcity is limiting the agricultural development, threatening sustainability of land and water resources and increasing water management problems. Therefore, water scarcity is imposing constraints on the country’s economic growth, food security and economic development of the country. To meet the increasing demand on food and water, the government has been adopting strategies for improving water use and water management especially in the agricultural sector. This study evaluated the impact of water scarcity on economic growth and sustainable development in Egypt by empirically analyzing the economic productivity, sustainability and management of land and water resources. The study identified and analyzed the impact of water scarcity within the agricultural sector, where the majority of water resources are allocated. The study found that during the winter season the economic productivity of land and water resources is within average. However, the land productivity is not achieving sufficient growth therefore, could be imposing threats on food security. Based on evaluating water quality indicators the study found that the irrigation water does not meet the sustainability measurements and could affect the long run productivity and sustainability of land and water resources. Based on evaluating water stress and undertaking location comparative analysis the study found that there is inequity between the different locations due to inefficient use and management of water resources. However, during the winter season and due to the reuse of drainage water the plants do not suffer from water stress. Furthermore, this study evaluated the impact of the irrigation improvement projects on water scarcity and sustainable development based on testing the economic productivity, sustainability and management of land and water resources. Based on the results obtained in this research the study concluded that the irrigation improvement projects still did not achieve its main goals of increasing agricultural production, improving the long run sustainability of irrigation and improve water use and management in the agricultural sector.

Sustainable Irrigation Management, Technologies and Policies III

Author : C. A. Brebbia
Publisher : WIT Press
ISBN 13 : 1845644468
Total Pages : 273 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (456 download)

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Book Synopsis Sustainable Irrigation Management, Technologies and Policies III by : C. A. Brebbia

Download or read book Sustainable Irrigation Management, Technologies and Policies III written by C. A. Brebbia and published by WIT Press. This book was released on 2010 with total page 273 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Fresh water is becoming an increasingly precious commodity. In the near future, control of it could lead to the type of political instability that is now associated with energy shortages. This book addresses the different aspects of irrigation, including not only the management of water resources and scientific and technical aspects, but also matters related to policy and economics. The objective of the Conference Series is to provide a venue for an international presentation and dissemination of papers related to sustainable ways of conducting irrigation. Sustainable irrigation has three key aspects, i.e. i) developing ways of using scarce water resources most efficiently to maximize food production while minimizing the environmental impact of irrigation activities on the affected land and water resources; ii) ensuring that the extraction of water from surface and groundwater sources is set at sustainable levels to maintain healthy aquatic ecosystems to secure a continued supply of quality water for irrigation, recreation and urban/industrial uses; iii) facilitate an equitable distribution of the water available for consumption between competing users, which is essential to maintain sustainable communities. Attracting researchers in academia and industry, as well as professional practitioners and policy makers, the Third International Conference provides a platform for a review of the state of the art from the scientific, technological, political and economic points of view. Papers from the Meeting are published in this volume, and cover the following topics: Irrigation Management; Modelling and Simulation; Sustainable Irrigation - Farmers' Actions, Environmental Benefits and Socio-economic Consequences.

Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture

Author : L.S. Pereira
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9401587000
Total Pages : 607 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture by : L.S. Pereira

Download or read book Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture written by L.S. Pereira and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-03-09 with total page 607 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Irrigated agriculture and the use of water resources in agriculture face the challenges of sustainable development. Research has advanced our knowledge of water use by crops, soil-water-solutes interactions, and the engineering and managerial tools needed to mobilize, convey, distribute, control and apply water for agricultural production. However, the achievements booked in user practice have revealed the need for new developments in the areas of resource conservation, control of environmental and health impacts, modernisation of technologies and management, economic viability and the social acceptance of changes. The contributions to Sustainability of Irrigated Agriculture cover most of the relevant disciplines. Besides its multidisciplinarity, the different origins, experience, backgrounds and practices of the authors provide a wide, in-depth analysis of the various aspects of water resource utilization in agriculture. The papers review scientific, technical and managerial aspects, highlighting the main problems, issues and future developments. The book covers the different aspects of sustainability, including environmental, technical, economic, institutional and social ones. Advances in irrigation science and engineering are dealt with, both on- and off-farm. Special attention is paid to the different components of water quality management, to the transfer of technology, and to capacity building.

Sustainable Irrigation and Drainage V

Author : C.A. Brebbia
Publisher : WIT Press
ISBN 13 : 1845647882
Total Pages : 281 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (456 download)

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Book Synopsis Sustainable Irrigation and Drainage V by : C.A. Brebbia

Download or read book Sustainable Irrigation and Drainage V written by C.A. Brebbia and published by WIT Press. This book was released on 2014-09-16 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Irrigation, as the biggest water user in most regions of the world is facing significant challenges in balancing social, economic and environmental needs for water. These proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Sustainable Irrigation and Drainage: Management, Technologies and Policies provide examples of how irrigation and drainage can become more sustainable, while acknowledging that the concept of sustainability is a goal that continues to change as our knowledge of the biophysical realities alters. In that sense moving towards sustainability is an ever evolving journey. A focus is made on the implications for improving sustainability, whether this is drainage, irrigation technologies, economic modelling, governance studies for irrigation management, reuse of water or any other aspect. Topics covered include: Irrigation management; Irrigation modelling; Irrigation systems and planning; Economic incentives; Groundwater issues; Water contamination and remediation; Drainage systems; Drainage modelling; International issues; Water reuse; Climate change effects; Water trade; Economics of irrigation; Socio-economic benefits.

Reengaging in Agricultural Water Management

Author :
Publisher : World Bank Publications
ISBN 13 : 0821364995
Total Pages : 242 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (213 download)

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Book Synopsis Reengaging in Agricultural Water Management by :

Download or read book Reengaging in Agricultural Water Management written by and published by World Bank Publications. This book was released on 2006-01-01 with total page 242 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "In order to face the challenge of disappointing returns on public investment in irrigation and drainage new solutions have emerged. These solutions are based on widely available technology and new management and governance options. The main message of Re-engaging in Agricultural Water Management is that the irrigation and drainage sector should not continue to be dealt with as a standalone sector, but should be integrated into a broader perspective, one that embraces the objectives of productivity growth, poverty reduction, natural resources management and environmental protection."

The Management of Water Quality and Irrigation Technologies

Author : Jose Albiac
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136553215
Total Pages : 282 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (365 download)

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Book Synopsis The Management of Water Quality and Irrigation Technologies by : Jose Albiac

Download or read book The Management of Water Quality and Irrigation Technologies written by Jose Albiac and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2012-05-04 with total page 282 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is an outcome from the International Expo 'Water and Sustainable Development' held in Zaragoza (Spain) in 2008. Support from the Spanish Ministry of Environment, Caja Rioja, Government of Aragon, and the World Bank is acknowledged. 'Few resources will play a more important role in shaping our economic future, or face more daunting challenges, than water. This internationally acclaimed team of experts has produced a first-rate volume that is full of intriguing, practical ideas for meeting those challenges in a rich variety of institutional settings.' Tom Tietenberg, Mitchell Family Professor of Economics, Emeritus, Colby College, USA 'This volume brings together two critical but interrelated dimensions of water challenge, i.e. water pollution, particularly from non-point sources, and water conservation. The editors are well known experts on the subject as are the contributors.' R. Maria Saleth, International Water Management Institute, Sri Lanka and Associate Editor, Water Policy 'The profound contribution of this volume is that it brings together various economic concepts and policy dilemmas regarding water shortages, non-point source pollution, efficiency of water use and irrigation technology. Recommended reading for anyone working in the area of water management.' Henk Folmer, University of Groningen and Wageningen University, The Netherlands As countries face deteriorating water and environmental quality as well as water shortages, pollution control and the efficiency of water use become of paramount importance. Agriculture is one of the main non-point polluters of water bodies and irrigation for agriculture is one of the main consumers of water. While it is very hard to regulate pollution from agriculture, attempts have been made via economic and command and control instruments, and also through investments in technologies and ecosystems recovery. Coping with non-point pollution takes the form of both policy intervention and technology development. Likewise it is recognized that irrigation efficiency varies across countries, influenced by both technology and supporting adoption policies. Countries that lead in irrigation technology and supporting policies have certain traits in common. They face very high scarcity and are pushed to find innovative solutions, both technical and policy related. The recent multibillion investments in irrigation technologies in Spain, and similar proposals in Australia, for example, highlight the potential of irrigation technologies to cope with scarcity and water quality degradation. This book reviews all of the above issues, presents experiences in selected countries, and assesses the degree of success of alternative policies for coping with non-point water pollution and improving irrigation efficiency.

Review of Research and Development Needs in Irrigation and Drainage

Author : J. C. Skutsch
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9789251045640
Total Pages : 56 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (456 download)

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Book Synopsis Review of Research and Development Needs in Irrigation and Drainage by : J. C. Skutsch

Download or read book Review of Research and Development Needs in Irrigation and Drainage written by J. C. Skutsch and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2001 with total page 56 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The International Programme for Technology and Research in Irrigation and Drainage (IPTRID) was established in 1991 to promote technology and research in and by developing countries. The purpose of this review is to highlight areas where research and development can improve performance and identify gaps in knowledge. In the face of water shortage the problem of one set of water users cannot be considered in isolation from other users and hence there are a number of cross-discipline issues that must also be addressed.

Water, Sustainable Development and the Nexus

Author : Velma I. Grover
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1351651951
Total Pages : 290 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (516 download)

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Book Synopsis Water, Sustainable Development and the Nexus by : Velma I. Grover

Download or read book Water, Sustainable Development and the Nexus written by Velma I. Grover and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2019-08-30 with total page 290 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Water is intricately linked with food security, energy security, and sustainable development. As the world is moving towards sustainable development goals, it is critical to recognize the role of water in attaining these goals. The Water-Energy-Food Nexus draws attention to the complex and interrelated nature of global resource systems and forces us to think about how a decision in one sector impacts other interlinked sectors as well. This book looks at the three dimensions of sustainable developmentenvironment, economics and society – and how water is linked with them and explores the nexus approach as a framework to look at the issues and identify solutions.

Coping with Water Scarcity

Author : Luis Santos Pereira
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1402095791
Total Pages : 385 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Coping with Water Scarcity by : Luis Santos Pereira

Download or read book Coping with Water Scarcity written by Luis Santos Pereira and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2009-03-22 with total page 385 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: One of the main problems confronting the world of the 21st Century is a shortage of water. There is already severe scarcity in many regions of the world, causing tremendous problems for local populations and indeed entire societies. There is insufficient water available for the production of food to alleviate poverty and starvation; the lack of water hampers industrial, urban and tourism development, forcing restrictions on other sectors, especially agriculture; health problems arise as the deterioration of ground and surface waters favours water-borne diseases, which flourish in the absence of decent water distribution and sewerage systems. Water conflicts still arise in areas under stress, while water for nature has become a vanishing priority in such zones. This book is a guide to the establishment of regional and/or local guidelines for developing and implementing new ideas for coping with water scarcity. The basic premise underlying the book is that water scarcity will persist, so personal, human and society-wide skills will be needed to cope with it while living in harmony with the necessary environmental constraints. The book provides basic information to assist decision makers, water managers, engineers, agronomists, social scientists and other professions (and their students) in formulating coherent, hopefully harmonious and consolidated views on the issue. Guidelines are also given for introducing the general public to the concept of water scarcity and how to deal with it.

Irrigation

Author : Sandra Ricart
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 1789846765
Total Pages : 136 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (898 download)

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Book Synopsis Irrigation by : Sandra Ricart

Download or read book Irrigation written by Sandra Ricart and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2019-12-18 with total page 136 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The management of irrigation systems is context-dependent, socially constructed, and technically uncertain. An example of complex social-ecological systems, irrigation deals with both the ecosystem uncertainty and the implementation of new technological systems and water management options. Issues to be addressed by irrigation systems at the global scale include: water productivity and food security, field operation and maintenance, spate irrigation in climate change scenarios, and vulnerability of environmental resources. This book provides examples of some of the current challenges faced by irrigation systems from technical and social perspectives. The book offers an easy-to-follow format focused on different case studies combining evidence-based solutions for increasing resilience and reducing vulnerability of irrigation systems in semi-arid and arid regions across the world.

Water in a Changing World

Author : World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations)
Publisher : Earthscan
ISBN 13 : 1844078396
Total Pages : 345 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (44 download)

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Book Synopsis Water in a Changing World by : World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations)

Download or read book Water in a Changing World written by World Water Assessment Programme (United Nations) and published by Earthscan. This book was released on 2009 with total page 345 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The United Nations World Water Development Report, published every three years, is a comprehensive review providing an authoritative picture of the state of the world's freshwater resources. It offers best practices as well as in-depth theoretical analyses to help stimulate ideas and actions for better stewardship in the water sector. It is the only report of its kind, resulting from the collaboration and contributions of the 26 UN agencies, commissions, program, funds, secretariats and conventions that have a significant role in addressing global water concerns.The news media are full of talk of crises - in climate change, energy and food and troubled financial markets. These crises are linked to each other and to water resources management. Unresolved, they may lead to increasing political insecurity and conflict.Water is required to meet our fundamental needs and rising living standards and to sustain our planets fragile ecosystems. Pressures on the resource come from a growing and mobile population, social and cultural change, economic development and technological change. Adding complexity and risk is climate change, with impacts on the resource as well as on the sources of pressure on water.The challenges, though substantial, are not insurmountable. The Report shows how some countries have responded. Progress in providing drinking water is heartening, with the Millennium Development Goal target on track in most regions. But other areas remain unaddressed, and after decades of inaction, the problems in water systems are enormous and will worsen if left unattended.Leaders in the water sector can inform decisions outside their domain and manage water resources to achieve agreed socioeconomic objectives and environmental integrity. Leaders in government, the private sector and civil society determine these objectives and allocate human and financial resources to meet them. Recognizing this responsibility, they must act now!Two volume set: 336 + 96 pages (case studies). Includes CD-ROM.Published jointly with UNESCO Publishing.

Is irrigation fit for purpose? A review of the relationships between scheme size and performance of irrigation systems

Author : McCarthy, Nancy
Publisher : Intl Food Policy Res Inst
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 57 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Is irrigation fit for purpose? A review of the relationships between scheme size and performance of irrigation systems by : McCarthy, Nancy

Download or read book Is irrigation fit for purpose? A review of the relationships between scheme size and performance of irrigation systems written by McCarthy, Nancy and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2023-04-18 with total page 57 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Irrigation is increasingly being called upon to help stabilize and grow food and water security in the face of multiple crises; these crises include climate change, but also recent global food and energy price crises, including the 2007/08 food and energy price crises, and the more recent crises triggered by the COVID 19 pandemic and the war on Ukraine. While irrigation development used to focus on public, large-scale, surface- and reservoir-fed systems, over the last several decades, private small-scale investments in groundwater irrigation have grown in importance and are expected to see rapid future growth, particularly in connection with solar-powered pumping systems. But is irrigation ‘fit-for-purpose’ to support population growth, economic development, and multiple food, energy and climate crises? This paper reviews how fit-for-purpose irrigation is with a focus on economies of scale of surface and groundwater systems, and a particular examination of systems in Sub-Saharan Africa where the need for expansion is largest. The review finds challenges for both larger surface and smaller groundwater systems in the face of growing demand for irrigated agriculture and dwindling and less reliable water supplies. To support resilience of the sector, we propose both a holistic design and management improvement agenda for larger surface systems, and a series of suggestions to improve sustainability concerns of groundwater systems

Technological and Modern Irrigation Environment in Egypt

Author : El-Sayed E. Omran
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030303756
Total Pages : 364 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (33 download)

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Book Synopsis Technological and Modern Irrigation Environment in Egypt by : El-Sayed E. Omran

Download or read book Technological and Modern Irrigation Environment in Egypt written by El-Sayed E. Omran and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-03-26 with total page 364 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book gathers contributions on modern irrigation environments in Egypt from an environmental and agricultural perspective. Written by leading experts in the field, it discusses a wide variety of modern irrigation problems. In the context of water resources management in Egypt, one fundamental problem is the gap between growing water demand and limited supply. As such, improving irrigation systems and providing farmers with better control over water are crucial to increasing productivity. The book presents state-of-the-art technologies and techniques that can be effectively used to address a range of problems in modern irrigation, as well as the latest research advances. Focusing on water sensing and information technologies, automated irrigation technologies, and improved irrigation efficiency. It brings together a team of experts who share their personal experiences, describe the various applications, present recent advances, and discuss possibilities for interdisciplinary collaboration and implementing the techniques covered

Water and Agriculture

Author :
Publisher : CSIS
ISBN 13 : 0892065915
Total Pages : 116 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis Water and Agriculture by :

Download or read book Water and Agriculture written by and published by CSIS. This book was released on 2009 with total page 116 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Increasing the benefits and sustainability of irrigation through integration of fisheries

Author : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9251336016
Total Pages : 92 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis Increasing the benefits and sustainability of irrigation through integration of fisheries by : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Download or read book Increasing the benefits and sustainability of irrigation through integration of fisheries written by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2020-11-17 with total page 92 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: There is increasing recognition of the need to bring about changes across the full spectrum of agricultural practices to ensure that, in future, food production systems are more diverse, sustainable and resilient. In this context, the objectives of irrigation need to be much more ambitious, shifting away from simply maximizing crop yields to maximizing net benefits across a range of uses of irrigation water, including ecosystems and nature-based solutions. One important way to achieve this is by better integrating fisheries into the planning, design, construction, operation and management of irrigation systems. Irrigation – a major contributor to the Green Revolution – has significantly improved agricultural production worldwide, with consequent benefits for food security, livelihoods and poverty alleviation. Today, irrigated agriculture represents about 21 percent of cultivated land, but contributes approximately 40% of the total global crop production. Many governments continue to invest in irrigation as a cornerstone of food security and rural development. Investments in irrigation often represent a pragmatic form of adaptation to changing climatic conditions. This guide focuses on how to sustainably optimize and broaden the range of benefits from irrigation development - not only economic but also social and environmental benefits . It emphasizes the opportunities that fisheries could provide to increase food production and economic returns, enhance livelihoods and public health outcomes, and maintain key ecosystem services. The guide considers possible trade-offs between irrigation and fisheries, and provides recommendations on how these could be minimized.

A New Era for Irrigation

Author : National Research Council
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309053315
Total Pages : 214 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (9 download)

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Book Synopsis A New Era for Irrigation by : National Research Council

Download or read book A New Era for Irrigation written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 1996-11-21 with total page 214 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Irrigated agriculture has played a critical role in the economic and social development of the United Statesâ€"but it is also at the root of increasing controversy. How can irrigation best make the transition into an era of increasing water scarcity? In A New Era for Irrigation, experts draw important conclusions about whether irrigation can continue to be the nation's most significant water user, what role the federal government should play, and what the irrigation industry must do to adapt to the conditions of the future. A New Era for Irrigation provides data, examples, and insightful commentary on issues such as: Growing competition for water resources. Developments in technology and science. The role of federal subsidies for crops and water. Uncertainties related to American Indian water rights issues. Concern about environmental problems. And more. The committee identifies broad forces of change and reports on how public and private institutions, scientists and technology experts, and individual irrigators have responded. The report includes detailed case studies from the Great Plains, the Pacific Northwest, California, and Florida, in both the agricultural and turfgrass sectors. The cultural transformation brought about by irrigation may be as profound as the transformation of the landscape. The committee examines major facets of this cultural perspective and explores its place in the future. A New Era for Irrigation explains how irrigation emerged in the nineteenth century, how it met the nation's goals in the twentieth century, and what role it might play in the twenty-first century. It will be important to growers, policymakers, regulators, environmentalists, water and soil scientists, water rights claimants, and interested individuals.

Handbook of Irrigation Hydrology and Management

Author : Saeid Eslamian
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1000865312
Total Pages : 600 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Irrigation Hydrology and Management by : Saeid Eslamian

Download or read book Handbook of Irrigation Hydrology and Management written by Saeid Eslamian and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2023-05-31 with total page 600 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Ever-increasing population growth has caused a proportional increased demand for water, and existing water sources are depleting day by day. Moreover, with the impact of climate change, the rates of rainfall in many regions have experienced a higher degree of variability. In many cities, government utilities have been struggling to maintain sufficient water for the residents and other users. The Handbook of Irrigation Hydrology and Management: Irrigation Case Studies examines and analyzes irrigated ecosystems in which water storage, applications, or drainage volumes are artificially controlled in the landscape and the spatial domain of processes varies from micrometers to tens of kilometers, while the temporal domain spans from seconds to centuries. The continuum science of irrigation hydrology includes the surface, subsurface (unsaturated and groundwater systems), atmospheric, and plant subsystems. Further, the book includes practical case studies from around the world, including locations such as Africa, Australia, China, India, the Middle East, the United States, and more. Features: Offers water-saving strategies to increase the judicious use of scarce water resources Presents strategies to maximize agricultural yield per unit of water used for different regions Compares irrigation methods to offset changing weather patterns and impacts of climate change