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For the Love of Humanity

Author : Ayça Çubukçu
Publisher : University of Pennsylvania Press
ISBN 13 : 0812295374
Total Pages : 237 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (122 download)

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Book Synopsis For the Love of Humanity by : Ayça Çubukçu

Download or read book For the Love of Humanity written by Ayça Çubukçu and published by University of Pennsylvania Press. This book was released on 2018-08-14 with total page 237 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: On February 15, 2003, millions of people around the world demonstrated against the war that the United States, the United Kingdom, and their allies were planning to wage in Iraq. Despite this being the largest protest in the history of humankind, the war on Iraq began the next month. That year, the World Tribunal on Iraq (WTI) emerged from the global antiwar movement that had mobilized against the invasion and subsequent occupation. Like the earlier tribunal on Vietnam convened by Bertrand Russell and Jean-Paul Sartre, the WTI sought to document—and provide grounds for adjudicating—war crimes committed by the United States, the United Kingdom, and their allied forces during the Iraq war. For the Love of Humanity builds on two years of transnational fieldwork within the decentralized network of antiwar activists who constituted the WTI in some twenty cities around the world. Ayça Çubukçu illuminates the tribunal up close, both as an ethnographer and a sympathetic participant. In the process, she situates debates among WTI activists—a group encompassing scholars, lawyers, students, translators, writers, teachers, and more—alongside key jurists, theorists, and critics of global democracy. WTI activists confronted many dilemmas as they conducted their political arguments and actions, often facing interpretations of human rights and international law that, unlike their own, were not grounded in anti-imperialism. Çubukçu approaches this conflict by broadening her lens, incorporating insights into how Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, and the Iraqi High Tribunal grappled with the realities of Iraq's occupation. Through critical analysis of the global debate surrounding one of the early twenty-first century's most significant world events, For the Love of Humanity addresses the challenges of forging global solidarity against imperialism and makes a case for reevaluating the relationships between law and violence, empire and human rights, and cosmopolitan authority and political autonomy.

World Tribunal on Iraq Making the Case Against War

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (19 download)

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Book Synopsis World Tribunal on Iraq Making the Case Against War by :

Download or read book World Tribunal on Iraq Making the Case Against War written by and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The World Tribunal on Iraq (WTI) was a collective effort involving hundreds of people from all over the world, most of them never having met in person. Inspired by the Bertrand Russell Tribunal of the Vietnam War era, WTI aimed to record not only the crimes against the Iraqi people, but also crimes committed against humanity. With contributions from over fifty internationally renowned experts, World Tribunal on Iraq examines every aspect of the war, from its legality, to the history of US and British military interventions in Iraq, to the role of international institutions and corporations in the occupation, to the use of torture, and to strategies of resistance.

World Tribunal on Iraq

Author : Müge Gürsoy Sökmen
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 580 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis World Tribunal on Iraq by : Müge Gürsoy Sökmen

Download or read book World Tribunal on Iraq written by Müge Gürsoy Sökmen and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 580 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is that testimony, expertly introduced by activist Muge Gursoy Sokmen, Booker Prize winner and peace activist Arundhati Roy, and the noted human rights scholar Richard Falk. As Roy notes in her introduction, this is an attempt to "correct the record-to document the history of the war not from the point of view of the victors but of the temporarily-and I repeat the word "temporarily"--Vanquished." Every aspect of the war is examined-from its legality, to the effects of cluster bombs and depleted uranium, to its ecological impact, to the history of US and British military interventions of Iraq, to the role of international institutions and corporations in the occupation, to the use of torture, and to strategies of resistance. -- Publisher description.

Societal Reconciliation, the Rule of Law and the Iraqi High Tribunal

Author : William H. Wiley
Publisher : Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher
ISBN 13 : 8283480049
Total Pages : 4 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (834 download)

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Book Synopsis Societal Reconciliation, the Rule of Law and the Iraqi High Tribunal by : William H. Wiley

Download or read book Societal Reconciliation, the Rule of Law and the Iraqi High Tribunal written by William H. Wiley and published by Torkel Opsahl Academic EPublisher. This book was released on 2015-05-29 with total page 4 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Saddam on Trial

Author : Michael P. Scharf
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 444 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Saddam on Trial by : Michael P. Scharf

Download or read book Saddam on Trial written by Michael P. Scharf and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 444 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Saddam Hussein. Derided as "the Butcher of Baghdad," he was charged with the most serious crimes known to mankind. On October 19, 2005, the ruthless Iraqi leader and seven of his henchmen began a legal battle of epic proportions, with their lives literally in the balance. The first of several planned trials before the Iraqi High Tribunal focused on the destruction of the town of Dujail and the torture and murder of its inhabitants in retaliation for a 1982 failed assassination attempt. Billed by the international media as "the real trial of the century," the televised proceedings were punctuated by gripping testimony of atrocities, controversial judicial rulings, assassinations of defense counsel, resignation of judges, scathing outbursts, allegations of mistreatment, hunger strikes, and even underwear appearances. Was it a mistake to try Saddam in Baghdad before a panel of Iraqi judges? Was the Iraqi High Tribunal a legitimate judicial institution? Were the proceedings fundamentally fair? Did the judges react properly to the defendants' attempts to derail the proceedings? Did the Prosecution prove its case? Did Saddam have any valid defenses? What precedents did this extraordinary trial set? Saddam on Trial: Understanding and Debating the Iraqi High Tribunal provides the reader with a thorough understanding of these and a host of other issues related to the Saddam Trial. The text offers a series of essays, in which leading international and criminal law experts discuss and debate more than thirty discrete questions raised by the trial. The book also includes a psychological profile of Saddam Hussein, a chronology of events related to the charges, a glossary of key legal terms, a synopsis of the charges and applicable law, a summary of the evidence and testimony, an analysis of the judgment, and English translations of the Tribunal's Statute, Rules, and other relevant instruments. Saddam on Trial is designed for law students, undergraduates, academics, journalists, and general readers. The book will be useful as a supplement for any law school course on International Law, International Criminal Law, International Humanitarian Law, or National Security Law. It is also suitable for undergraduate Foreign Relations, Public Policy, or Criminal Justice courses. An accompanying Teacher's Guide contains suggested questions and answers, debates, simulations, and role play exercises designed to facilitate use of the book as a teaching tool. "The expertise of the authors and the contributors (all specialists in the rarified world of international criminal tribunals and the broader fields of international human rights) ensured that the essays are uniformly well written, focused on important topics, and interesting." -- Law & Politics Book Review

The Tokyo War Crimes Trial

Author : Yuma Totani
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 1684174732
Total Pages : 366 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (841 download)

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Book Synopsis The Tokyo War Crimes Trial by : Yuma Totani

Download or read book The Tokyo War Crimes Trial written by Yuma Totani and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2020-03-17 with total page 366 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "This book assesses the historical significance of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East (IMTFE)—commonly called the Tokyo trial—established as the eastern counterpart of the Nuremberg trial in the immediate aftermath of World War II. Through extensive research in Japanese, American, Australian, and Indian archives, Yuma Totani taps into a large body of previously underexamined sources to explore some of the central misunderstandings and historiographical distortions that have persisted to the present day. Foregrounding these voluminous records, Totani disputes the notion that the trial was an exercise in “victors’ justice” in which the legal process was egregiously compromised for political and ideological reasons; rather, the author details the achievements of the Allied prosecution teams in documenting war crimes and establishing the responsibility of the accused parties to show how the IMTFE represented a sound application of the legal principles established at Nuremberg. This study deepens our knowledge of the historical intricacies surrounding the Tokyo trial and advances our understanding of the Japanese conduct of war and occupation during World War II, the range of postwar debates on war guilt, and the relevance of the IMTFE to the continuing development of international humanitarian law."

Reclaimative Post-Conflict Justice

Author : Janet C. Gerson
Publisher : Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9781527569324
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (693 download)

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Book Synopsis Reclaimative Post-Conflict Justice by : Janet C. Gerson

Download or read book Reclaimative Post-Conflict Justice written by Janet C. Gerson and published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. This book was released on 2021-08 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents an important contribution to our understanding of post-conflict justice as an essential element of global ethics and justice through an exploration of the World Tribunal on Iraq (WTI). The 2003 War in Iraq provoked worldwide protests and unleashed debates on the warâ (TM)s illegitimacy and illegality. In response, the WTI was organized by anti-war and peace activists, international law experts, and ordinary people who claimed global citizensâ (TM) rights to investigate and document the war responsibilities of official authorities, governments, and the United Nations, as well as their violation of global public will. The WTIâ (TM)s democratizing, experimental form constituted reclaimative post-conflict justice, a new conceptualization within the field of post-conflict and justice studies. This book serves as a theoretical and practical guide for all who seek to reclaim deliberative democracy as a viable foundation for revitalizing the ethical norms of a peaceful and just world order.

World Tribunal on Iraq

Author : Müge Gürsoy Sökmen
Publisher : Interlink Books
ISBN 13 : 9781566566834
Total Pages : 562 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (668 download)

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Book Synopsis World Tribunal on Iraq by : Müge Gürsoy Sökmen

Download or read book World Tribunal on Iraq written by Müge Gürsoy Sökmen and published by Interlink Books. This book was released on 2008 with total page 562 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Justice in a Time of War

Author : Pierre Hazan
Publisher : Texas A&M University Press
ISBN 13 : 9781585444113
Total Pages : 276 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (441 download)

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Book Synopsis Justice in a Time of War by : Pierre Hazan

Download or read book Justice in a Time of War written by Pierre Hazan and published by Texas A&M University Press. This book was released on 2004-09-03 with total page 276 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Can we achieve justice during war? Should law substitute for realpolitik? Can an international court act against the global community that created it? Justice in a Time of War is a translation from the French of the first complete, behind-the-scenes story of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, from its proposal by Balkan journalist Mirko Klarin through recent developments in the first trial of its ultimate quarry, Slobodan Miloševic. It is also a meditation on the conflicting intersection of law and politics in achieving justice and peace. Le Monde’s review (November 3, 2000) of the original edition recommended Hazan’s book as a nuanced account of the Tribunal that should be a must-read for the new president of Yugoslavia. “The story Pierre Hazan tells is that of an institution which, over the course of the years, has managed to escape in large measure from the initial hidden motives and manipulations of those who created it (not only the Americans).” With insider interviews filling out every scene, author Pierre Hazan tells a chaotic story of war while the Western powers cobbled together a tribunal in order to avoid actual intervention, hoping to threaten international criminals with indictment and thereby to force an untenable peace. The international lawyers and judges for this rump world court started with nothing—no office space, no assistants, no computers, not even a budget—but they ultimately established the tribunal as an unavoidable actor in the Balkans. This development was also a reflection of the evolving political situation: the West had created the Tribunal in 1993 as an alibi in order to avoid military intervention, but in 1999, the Tribunal suddenly became useful to NATO countries as a means by which to criminalize Miloševic’s regime and to justify military intervention in Kosovo and in Serbia. Ultimately, this hastened the end of Miloševic’s rule and led the way to history’s first war crimes trial of a former president by an international tribunal. Ironically, this triumph for international law was not really intended by the Western leaders who created the court. They sought to placate, not shape, public opinion. But the determination of a handful of people working at the Tribunal transformed it into an active agent for change, paving the road for the International Criminal Court and greatly advancing international criminal law. Yet the Tribunal’s existence poses as many questions as it answers. How independent can a U.N. Tribunal be from the political powers that created it and sustain it politically and financially ? Hazan remains cautious though optimistic for the future of international justice. His history remains a cautionary tale to the reader: realizing ideals in a world enamored of realpolitik is a difficult and often haphazard activity.

Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg

Author : Francine Hirsch
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199377944
Total Pages : 432 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (993 download)

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Book Synopsis Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg by : Francine Hirsch

Download or read book Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg written by Francine Hirsch and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2020-04-23 with total page 432 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Organized in the immediate aftermath of World War II to try the former Nazi leaders for war crimes, the Nuremberg trials, known as the International Military Tribunal (IMT), paved the way for global conversations about genocide, justice, and human rights that continue to this day. As Francine Hirsch reveals in this immersive new history of the trials, a central piece of the story has been routinely omitted from standard accounts: the critical role that the Soviet Union played in making Nuremberg happen in the first place. Hirsch's book reveals how the Soviets shaped the trials--only to be written out of their story as Western allies became bitter Cold War rivals. Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg offers the first full picture of the war trials, illuminating the many ironies brought to bear as the Soviets did their part to bring the Nazis to justice. Everyone knew that Stalin had originally allied with Hitler before the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union. The Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact of 1939 hung heavy over the courtroom, as did the suspicion among the Western prosecutors and judges that the Soviets had falsified evidence in an attempt to pin one of their own war crimes, the Katyn massacre of Polish officers, on the Nazis. It did not help that key members of the Soviet delegation, including the Soviet judge and chief prosecutor, had played critical roles in Stalin's infamous show trials of the 1930s. For the lead American prosecutor Robert H. Jackson and his colleagues, Soviet participation in the Nuremberg Trials undermined their overall credibility and possibly even the moral righteousness of the Allied victory. Yet Soviet jurists had been the first to conceive of a legal framework that treated war as an international crime. Without it, the IMT would have had no basis for judgment. The Soviets had borne the brunt of the fighting against Germany--enduring the horrors of the Nazi occupation and experiencing almost unimaginable human losses and devastation. There would be no denying their place on the tribunal, nor their determination to make the most of it. Once the trials were set in motion, however, little went as the Soviets had planned. Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg shows how Stalin's efforts to direct the Soviet delegation and to steer the trials from afar backfired, and how Soviet war crimes became exposed in open court. Hirsch's book offers readers both a front-row seat in the courtroom and a behind-the-scenes look at the meetings in which the prosecutors shared secrets and forged alliances. It reveals the shifting relationships among the four countries of the prosecution (the U.S., Great Britain, France, and the USSR), uncovering how and why the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg became a Cold War battleground. In the process Soviet Judgment at Nuremberg offers a new understanding of the trials and a fresh perspective on the post-war movement for human rights.

The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law

Author : Kevin Jon Heller
Publisher : Oxford University Press on Demand
ISBN 13 : 0199554315
Total Pages : 528 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (995 download)

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Book Synopsis The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law by : Kevin Jon Heller

Download or read book The Nuremberg Military Tribunals and the Origins of International Criminal Law written by Kevin Jon Heller and published by Oxford University Press on Demand. This book was released on 2011-06-23 with total page 528 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides the first comprehensive legal analysis of the twelve war-crimes trials held in the American zone of occupation between 1946 and 1949, collectively known as the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT). The judgments these Tribunals produced have played a critical role in the development of international criminal law, particularly in terms of how courts currently understand genocide, crimes against humanity, and the crime of aggression. The trials are of tremendous historical importance, because they provide a far more comprehensive picture of Nazi atrocities than the main Nuremberg Trial (IMT). The IMT focused exclusively on the 'major war criminals'-the Goerings, the Hesses, the Speers. The NMT, by contrast, prosecuted doctors, lawyers, judges, industrialists, bankers-the private citizens and lower-level functionaries whose willingness to take part in the destruction of millions of innocents manifested what Hannah Arendt famously called 'the banality of evil'. This book starts by tracing the history of the NMT. It then discusses the law and procedure applied by the NMT, with a focus on the important differences between Control Council Law No. 10 and the Nuremberg Charter and on the protection of the defendants' right to a fair trial. The third section, the heart of the book, provides a systematic analysis of the NMT's jurisprudence. It covers Law No. 10's core crimes, crimes against peace, war crimes, and crimes against humanity, as well as the crimes of conspiracy and membership of a criminal organization. This section also analyzes the general principles of liability that the Tribunals applied and on the defenses they did -and did not- recognize. The final section of the book deals with the aftermath of the trials and their historical legacy.

Reclaimative Post-Conflict Justice

Author : Janet C. Gerson
Publisher : Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1527571122
Total Pages : 274 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (275 download)

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Book Synopsis Reclaimative Post-Conflict Justice by : Janet C. Gerson

Download or read book Reclaimative Post-Conflict Justice written by Janet C. Gerson and published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. This book was released on 2021-06-15 with total page 274 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents an important contribution to our understanding of post-conflict justice as an essential element of global ethics and justice through an exploration of the World Tribunal on Iraq (WTI). The 2003 War in Iraq provoked worldwide protests and unleashed debates on the war’s illegitimacy and illegality. In response, the WTI was organized by anti-war and peace activists, international law experts, and ordinary people who claimed global citizens’ rights to investigate and document the war responsibilities of official authorities, governments, and the United Nations, as well as their violation of global public will. The WTI’s democratizing, experimental form constituted reclaimative post-conflict justice, a new conceptualization within the field of post-conflict and justice studies. This book serves as a theoretical and practical guide for all who seek to reclaim deliberative democracy as a viable foundation for revitalizing the ethical norms of a peaceful and just world order.

Building the Iraqi Special Tribunal

Author : Laurel Miller
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 12 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (327 download)

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Book Synopsis Building the Iraqi Special Tribunal by : Laurel Miller

Download or read book Building the Iraqi Special Tribunal written by Laurel Miller and published by . This book was released on 2004 with total page 12 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

World Tribunal on Iraq

Author : Müge Gürsoy Sökmen
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781771132480
Total Pages : 568 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (324 download)

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Book Synopsis World Tribunal on Iraq by : Müge Gürsoy Sökmen

Download or read book World Tribunal on Iraq written by Müge Gürsoy Sökmen and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 568 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is that testimony, expertly introduced by activist Muge Gursoy Sokmen, Booker Prize winner and peace activist Arundhati Roy, and the noted human rights scholar Richard Falk. As Roy notes in her introduction, this is an attempt to "correct the record-to document the history of the war not from the point of view of the victors but of the temporarily-and I repeat the word "temporarily"--Vanquished." Every aspect of the war is examined-from its legality, to the effects of cluster bombs and depleted uranium, to its ecological impact, to the history of US and British military interventions of Iraq, to the role of international institutions and corporations in the occupation, to the use of torture, and to strategies of resistance. -- Publisher description.

Balkan Justice

Author : Michael P. Scharf
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Balkan Justice by : Michael P. Scharf

Download or read book Balkan Justice written by Michael P. Scharf and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Billed by the international media as "the trial of the century," the Tadic case was punctuated by gripping testimony of atrocities, controversial judicial rulings, recanting star witnesses, and performances worthy of an Academy Award. What emerges is a compelling account of the historic trial which documented the full horror of the inhuman acts committed in the former Yugoslavia.

The Trial of Donald Rumsfeld

Author : Michael Ratner
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 264 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The Trial of Donald Rumsfeld by : Michael Ratner

Download or read book The Trial of Donald Rumsfeld written by Michael Ratner and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 264 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "He won't be tried in the United States. He can't be tried by an international tribunal. So Donald Rumsfeld will have to be prosecuted by book."â€”from The Trial of Donald RumsfeldThe Trial of Donald Rumsfeld lays out the evidence that high-level officials of the Bush administration ordered, authorized, implemented, and permitted war crimes, in particular the crimes of torture and cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment.Using primary source documents ranging from Rumsfeld's "techniques chart" and Iraqi plaintiffs' statements to the testimony of whistleblowers and key pieces of reportage, the book sets forth evidence of a torture program that took place throughout the world: in Afghanistan, Iraq, GuantÃ¡namo, secret CIA prisons, and other places unknown.The accused are accorded a defense drawn from their memos and public statements. Readers are allowed to judge whether the Bush administration has engaged in torture and whom among the administration to hold responsible.Reminiscent of Christopher Hitchens's bestselling The Trial of Henry Kissinger, The Trial of Donald Rumsfeld constitutes one of the only attempts to hold high-ranking Bush administration officials criminally responsible for their actions.Includes excerpts from:â€¢ testimony from Abu Ghraib victims and the Tipton Threeâ€¢ the interrogation log from Mohammed al Qahtani's detainment at GuantÃ¡namoâ€¢ the Gonzales, Yoo, and Bybee memosâ€¢ the U.S. Army's Fay/Jones Report on the abuse of prisoners at Abu Ghraibâ€¢ the August 2004 Final Report of the Independent Panel to Review Department of Defense Detention Operationsâ€¢ testimony from the former head of Abu Ghraib, Janis Karpinskiâ€¢ and analyses by Peter Weiss, Wolfgang Kaleck, Vincent Warren, and others

Enemy of the State

Author : Prof. Michael A. Newton
Publisher : St. Martin's Press
ISBN 13 : 1429947098
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (299 download)

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Book Synopsis Enemy of the State by : Prof. Michael A. Newton

Download or read book Enemy of the State written by Prof. Michael A. Newton and published by St. Martin's Press. This book was released on 2008-09-16 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: At 12:21 p.m., on October 19, 2005, Saddam Hussein was escorted into the Courtroom of the Iraqi High Tribunal in Baghdad for one of the most important and chaotic trials in history. For a year, two American law professors had led an elite team of experts who prepared the judges and prosecutors for "the mother of all trials." Michael Scharf, a former State Department official who helped create the Yugoslavia Tribunal in 1993, and Michael Newton, then a professor at West Point, would confront such issues as whether the death penalty should apply, how to run a fair trial when political and military passions run so high, and which of Saddam's many crimes should be prosecuted. Newton was in Baghdad in December 2003 when the Tribunal was announced and Saddam was captured. In the following months, Scharf and Newton helped write the rules of the Tribunal, conducted a mock trial in (perhaps appropriately) Stratford-upon-Avon, England, and provided legal analysis on dozens of issues. Newton then returned to Baghdad several times during the trial and appeal. Now, from its two shapers, comes the fascinating inside story of the trial and execution of Saddam Hussein and the attempt to bring the rule of law to post-invasion Iraq.