The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite

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Author :
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 0674075366
Total Pages : 380 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (74 download)

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Book Synopsis The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite by : Mark S. Mizruchi

Download or read book The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite written by Mark S. Mizruchi and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2013-05-07 with total page 380 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Critics warn that corporate leaders have too much influence over American politics. Mark Mizruchi worries they exert too little. American CEOs have abdicated their civic responsibilities in helping the government address national challenges, with grave consequences for society. A sobering assessment of the dissolution of America’s business class.

The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite

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Author :
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 0674075382
Total Pages : 387 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (74 download)

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Book Synopsis The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite by : Mark S. Mizruchi

Download or read book The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite written by Mark S. Mizruchi and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2013-05-07 with total page 387 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the aftermath of a financial crisis marked by bank-friendly bailouts and loosening campaign finance restrictions, a chorus of critics warns that business leaders have too much influence over American politics. Mark Mizruchi worries about the ways they exert too little. The Fracturing of the American Corporate Elite advances the surprising argument that American CEOs, seemingly more powerful today than ever, have abrogated the key leadership role they once played in addressing national challenges, with grave consequences for American society. Following World War II, American business leaders observed an ethic of civic responsibility and enlightened self-interest. Steering a course of moderation and pragmatism, they accepted the legitimacy of organized labor and federal regulation of the economy and offered support, sometimes actively, as Congress passed legislation to build the interstate highway system, reduce discrimination in hiring, and provide a safety net for the elderly and needy. In the 1970s, however, faced with inflation, foreign competition, and growing public criticism, corporate leaders became increasingly confrontational with labor and government. As they succeeded in taming their opponents, business leaders paradoxically undermined their ability to act collectively. The acquisition wave of the 1980s created further pressures to focus on shareholder value and short-term gain rather than long-term problems facing their country. Today’s corporate elite is a fragmented, ineffectual group that is unwilling to tackle the big issues, despite unprecedented wealth and political clout. Mizruchi’s sobering assessment of the dissolution of America’s business class helps explain the polarization and gridlock that stifle U.S. politics.

The Structure of Corporate Political Action

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Author :
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780674843776
Total Pages : 322 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (437 download)

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Book Synopsis The Structure of Corporate Political Action by : Mark S. Mizruchi

Download or read book The Structure of Corporate Political Action written by Mark S. Mizruchi and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 1992 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this important book, Mark S. Mizruchi presents and tests an original model of corporate political behavior. He argues that because the business community is characterized by both unity and conflict, the key issue is not whether business is unified but the conditions under which unity or conflict occurs.

Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 12 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin by :

Download or read book Weekly Weather and Crop Bulletin written by and published by . This book was released on 1971 with total page 12 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Stewards of the Market

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 0674980786
Total Pages : 225 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (749 download)

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Book Synopsis Stewards of the Market by : Mitchel Y. Abolafia

Download or read book Stewards of the Market written by Mitchel Y. Abolafia and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 225 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Mitchel Abolafia goes behind the scenes with the Federal Reserve's powerful Open Market Committee as it responded to the 2008-2009 financial crisis. Relying on verbatim transcripts of closed meetings, Abolafia shows how assumptions about self-correcting markets stymied the Fed and how its leaders came to embrace new ideas"--

The Myth of Liberal Ascendancy

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Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 9781612052564
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (525 download)

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Book Synopsis The Myth of Liberal Ascendancy by : G. William Domhoff

Download or read book The Myth of Liberal Ascendancy written by G. William Domhoff and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It is commonly accepted that America saw the rise of liberalism in the wake of the New Deal, especially during the three decades after World War II. Based on new archival research, G. William Domhoff reveals this period instead as one of increasing corporate dominance in government affairs, affecting the fate of American workers up to the present day. While FDR's New Deal brought sweeping legislation, the tide turned quickly after 1938. From that year onward nearly every major new economic law passed by Congress showed the mark of corporate dominance. The influential Committee for Economic Development was a guiding force for presidential administrations and congressional leaders. Domhoff accessibly portrays documents of the Committee's vital influence in the halls of government, supported by his interviews with several of its key employees and trustees. In terms of economic influence, liberalism was on a long steady decline, despite two decades of post-war growing equality. Ironically, it was the successes of the civil rights, feminist, environmental, and gay-lesbian movements-not a new corporate mobilization-that led to the final defeat of the liberal-labor alliance after 1968. These cultural successes generated just enough backlash to turn whites toward the Republican Party. It then became possible for the corporate community to solve its emerging economic and political problems through the offshore manufacturing and high interest rates that killed off inflation and the power of unions.

Audience of One: Donald Trump, Television, and the Fracturing of America

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Author :
Publisher : Liveright Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1631494430
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (314 download)

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Book Synopsis Audience of One: Donald Trump, Television, and the Fracturing of America by : James Poniewozik

Download or read book Audience of One: Donald Trump, Television, and the Fracturing of America written by James Poniewozik and published by Liveright Publishing. This book was released on 2019-09-10 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: One of the Top 10 Politics and Current Events Books of Fall 2019 (Publishers Weekly) An incisive cultural history that captures a fractious nation through the prism of television and the rattled mind of a celebrity president. Television has entertained America, television has ensorcelled America, and with the election of Donald J. Trump, television has conquered America. In Audience of One, New York Times chief television critic James Poniewozik traces the history of TV and mass media from the Reagan era to today, explaining how a volcanic, camera-hogging antihero merged with America’s most powerful medium to become our forty-fifth president. In the tradition of Neil Postman’s masterpiece Amusing Ourselves to Death, Audience of One shows how American media have shaped American society and politics, by interweaving two crucial stories. The first story follows the evolution of television from the three-network era of the 20th century, which joined millions of Americans in a shared monoculture, into today’s zillion-channel, Internet-atomized universe, which sliced and diced them into fractious, alienated subcultures. The second story is a cultural critique of Donald Trump, the chameleonic celebrity who courted fame, achieved a mind-meld with the media beast, and rode it to ultimate power. Braiding together these disparate threads, Poniewozik combines a cultural history of modern America with a revelatory portrait of the most public American who has ever lived. Reaching back to the 1940s, when Trump and commercial television were born, Poniewozik illustrates how Donald became “a character that wrote itself, a brand mascot that jumped off the cereal box and entered the world, a simulacrum that replaced the thing it represented.” Viscerally attuned to the media, Trump shape-shifted into a boastful tabloid playboy in the 1980s; a self-parodic sitcom fixture in the 1990s; a reality-TV “You’re Fired” machine in the 2000s; and finally, the biggest role of his career, a Fox News–obsessed, Twitter-mad, culture-warring demagogue in the White House. Poniewozik deconstructs the chaotic Age of Trump as the 24-hour TV production that it is, decoding an era when politics has become pop culture, and vice versa. Trenchant and often slyly hilarious, Audience of One is a penetrating and sobering review of the raucous, raging, farcical reality show—performed for the benefit of an insomniac, cable-news-junkie “audience of one”—that we all came to live in, whether we liked it or not.

Amity and Prosperity

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Author :
Publisher : Farrar, Straus and Giroux
ISBN 13 : 0374713715
Total Pages : 320 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (747 download)

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Book Synopsis Amity and Prosperity by : Eliza Griswold

Download or read book Amity and Prosperity written by Eliza Griswold and published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. This book was released on 2018-06-12 with total page 320 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Winner of the 2019 Pulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction In Amity and Prosperity, the prizewinning poet and journalist Eliza Griswold tells the story of the energy boom’s impact on a small town at the edge of Appalachia and one woman’s transformation from a struggling single parent to an unlikely activist. Stacey Haney is a local nurse working hard to raise two kids and keep up her small farm when the fracking boom comes to her hometown of Amity, Pennsylvania. Intrigued by reports of lucrative natural gas leases in her neighbors’ mailboxes, she strikes a deal with a Texas-based energy company. Soon trucks begin rumbling past her small farm, a fenced-off drill site rises on an adjacent hilltop, and domestic animals and pets start to die. When mysterious sicknesses begin to afflict her children, she appeals to the company for help. Its representatives insist that nothing is wrong. Alarmed by her children’s illnesses, Haney joins with neighbors and a committed husband-and-wife legal team to investigate what’s really in the water and air. Against local opposition, Haney and her allies doggedly pursue their case in court and begin to expose the damage that’s being done to the land her family has lived on for centuries. Soon a community that has long been suspicious of outsiders faces wrenching new questions about who is responsible for their fate, and for redressing it: The faceless corporations that are poisoning the land? The environmentalists who fail to see their economic distress? A federal government that is mandated to protect but fails on the job? Drawing on seven years of immersive reporting, Griswold reveals what happens when an imperiled town faces a crisis of values, and a family wagers everything on an improbable quest for justice.

Nixonland

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Author :
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1416579885
Total Pages : 896 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (165 download)

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Book Synopsis Nixonland by : Rick Perlstein

Download or read book Nixonland written by Rick Perlstein and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2008-05-13 with total page 896 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “Perlstein...aims here at nothing less than weaving a tapestry of social upheaval. His success is dazzling.” —Los Angeles Times “Both brilliant and fun, a consuming journey back into the making of modern politics.” —Jon Meacham “Nixonland is a grand historical epic. Rick Perlstein has turned a story we think we know—American politics between the opposing presidential landslides of 1964 and 1972—into an often-surprising and always-fascinating new narrative.” —Jeffrey Toobin Rick Perlstein’s bestselling account of how the Nixon era laid the groundwork for the political divide that marks our country today. Told with vivid urgency and sharp political insight, Nixonland recaptures America’s turbulent 1960s and early 1970s and reveals how Richard Nixon rose from the political grave to seize and hold the presidency of the United States. Perlstein’s epic account begins in the blood and fire of the 1965 Watts riots, nine months after Lyndon Johnson’s historic landslide victory over Barry Goldwater appeared to herald a permanent liberal consensus in the United States. Yet the next year, scores of liberals were tossed out of Congress, America was more divided than ever, and a disgraced politician was on his way to a shocking comeback: Richard Nixon. Between 1965 and 1972 America experienced no less than a second civil war. Out of its ashes, the political world we know now was born. Filled with prodigious research and driven by a powerful narrative, Rick Perlstein’s magisterial account of how it all happened confirms his place as one of our country’s most celebrated historians.

Maternal Bodies

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Author :
Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 1469637200
Total Pages : 287 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (696 download)

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Book Synopsis Maternal Bodies by : Nora Doyle

Download or read book Maternal Bodies written by Nora Doyle and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2018-03-19 with total page 287 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the second half of the eighteenth century, motherhood came to be viewed as women's most important social role, and the figure of the good mother was celebrated as a moral force in American society. Nora Doyle shows that depictions of motherhood in American culture began to define the ideal mother by her emotional and spiritual roles rather than by her physical work as a mother. As a result of this new vision, lower-class women and non-white women came to be excluded from the identity of the good mother because American culture defined them in terms of their physical labor. However, Doyle also shows that childbearing women contradicted the ideal of the disembodied mother in their personal accounts and instead perceived motherhood as fundamentally defined by the work of their bodies. Enslaved women were keenly aware that their reproductive bodies carried a literal price, while middle-class and elite white women dwelled on the physical sensations of childbearing and childrearing. Thus motherhood in this period was marked by tension between the lived experience of the maternal body and the increasingly ethereal vision of the ideal mother that permeated American print culture.

Quiet Politics and Business Power

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Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1139491857
Total Pages : 246 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (394 download)

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Book Synopsis Quiet Politics and Business Power by : Pepper D. Culpepper

Download or read book Quiet Politics and Business Power written by Pepper D. Culpepper and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2010-11-22 with total page 246 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Does democracy control business, or does business control democracy? This study of how companies are bought and sold in four countries - France, Germany, Japan and the Netherlands - explores this fundamental question. It does so by examining variation in the rules of corporate control - specifically, whether hostile takeovers are allowed. Takeovers have high political stakes: they result in corporate reorganizations, layoffs and the unraveling of compromises between workers and managers. But the public rarely pays attention to issues of corporate control. As a result, political parties and legislatures are largely absent from this domain. Instead, organized managers get to make the rules, quietly drawing on their superior lobbying capacity and the deference of legislators. These tools, not campaign donations, are the true founts of managerial political influence.

Dream Hoarders

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Author :
Publisher : Brookings Institution Press
ISBN 13 : 0815735499
Total Pages : 206 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (157 download)

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Book Synopsis Dream Hoarders by : Richard Reeves

Download or read book Dream Hoarders written by Richard Reeves and published by Brookings Institution Press. This book was released on 2018-05-08 with total page 206 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Dream Hoarders sparked a national conversation on the dangerous separation between the upper middle class and everyone else. Now in paperback and newly updated for the age of Trump, Brookings Institution senior fellow Richard Reeves is continuing to challenge the class system in America. In America, everyone knows that the top 1 percent are the villains. The rest of us, the 99 percent—we are the good guys. Not so, argues Reeves. The real class divide is not between the upper class and the upper middle class: it is between the upper middle class and everyone else. The separation of the upper middle class from everyone else is both economic and social, and the practice of “opportunity hoarding”—gaining exclusive access to scarce resources—is especially prevalent among parents who want to perpetuate privilege to the benefit of their children. While many families believe this is just good parenting, it is actually hurting others by reducing their chances of securing these opportunities. There is a glass floor created for each affluent child helped by his or her wealthy, stable family. That glass floor is a glass ceiling for another child. Throughout Dream Hoarders, Reeves explores the creation and perpetuation of opportunity hoarding, and what should be done to stop it, including controversial solutions such as ending legacy admissions to school. He offers specific steps toward reducing inequality and asks the upper middle class to pay for it. Convinced of their merit, members of the upper middle class believes they are entitled to those tax breaks and hoarded opportunities. After all, they aren't the 1 percent. The national obsession with the super rich allows the upper middle class to convince themselves that they are just like the rest of America. In Dream Hoarders, Reeves argues that in many ways, they are worse, and that changes in policy and social conscience are the only way to fix the broken system.

Return to Prosperity

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Author :
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 9781439169384
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (693 download)

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Book Synopsis Return to Prosperity by : Arthur B. Laffer

Download or read book Return to Prosperity written by Arthur B. Laffer and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2010-02-09 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "WE CAN'T TAX AND SPEND OUR WAY BACK TO THE GOOD TIMES." -- Arthur B. Laffer and Stephen Moore When Arthur B. Laffer spearheaded the theory of supply-side economics and became a member of President Reagan's Economic Policy Advisory Board, he took his place as an economic icon. More recently, he joined with Stephen Moore and Peter J. Tanous to write The End of Prosperity -- a clarion call delineating what is wrong with current political approaches to America's present economic challenges. Steve Forbes himself described The End of Prosperity as "brilliantly insightful," saying "READ IT -- AND ACT!" Now Arthur Laffer and Stephen Moore follow the rousing success of The End of Prosperity with a book even more vital to America and Americans, delivering a plan that shows how our country can regain its lost prosperity. With the economy flat on its back, unemployment at a twenty-five-year high, and the housing default crisis still worsening, is this even possible? But America can once again become the land of economic opportunity, and this brilliant new book tells us exactly how. While President George W. Bush and President Barack Obama may hail from different parties, their response to the crisis has been strikingly similar. The Bush-Obama plan is a failure that has produced nothing except a cascade of trillions of dollars of debt. Is the situation hopeless? No, say Arthur Laffer and Stephen Moore resoundingly, the situation is not hopeless. A return to prosperity is still entirely possible...if the correct strategies are followed. In The End of Prosperity, the authors primarily discussed how lower taxes are essential to economic growth. Now, in Return to Prosperity, they detail the other essential components: putting government at all levels on a low-fat diet; emphasizing debt reduction and retirement; and bringing back the investor class in America, where every American can "own a piece of the rock." In a time where most of the proposed solutions are fraught with peril, the argument provides a refreshing counterbalance. The Return to Prosperity is a prescription that gives America the fundamental tools it needs in order to set about recovery. This book is an urgently needed road map to renewed prosperity, and it is vital reading for anyone who worries that the current economy is faltering, with no clear plan articulated for recovery.

Who Rules America Now?

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Author :
Publisher : Touchstone
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 244 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Who Rules America Now? by : G. William Domhoff

Download or read book Who Rules America Now? written by G. William Domhoff and published by Touchstone. This book was released on 1986 with total page 244 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The author is convinced that there is a ruling class in America today. He examines the American power structure as it has developed in the 1980s. He presents systematic, empirical evidence that a fixed group of privileged people dominates the American economy and government. The book demonstrates that an upper class comprising only one-half of one percent of the population occupies key positions within the corporate community. It shows how leaders within this "power elite" reach government and dominate it through processes of special-interest lobbying, policy planning and candidate selection. It is written not to promote any political ideology, but to analyze our society with accuracy.

The Politics of Resentment

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Author :
Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 0271071982
Total Pages : 181 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (71 download)

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Book Synopsis The Politics of Resentment by : Jeremy Engels

Download or read book The Politics of Resentment written by Jeremy Engels and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2015-06-18 with total page 181 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the days and weeks following the tragic 2011 shooting of nineteen Arizonans, including congresswoman Gabrielle Giffords, there were a number of public discussions about the role that rhetoric might have played in this horrific event. In question was the use of violent and hateful rhetoric that has come to dominate American political discourse on television, on the radio, and at the podium. A number of more recent school shootings have given this debate a renewed sense of urgency, as have the continued use of violent metaphors in public address and the dishonorable state of America’s partisan gridlock. This conversation, unfortunately, has been complicated by a collective cultural numbness to violence. But that does not mean that fruitful conversations should not continue. In The Politics of Resentment, Jeremy Engels picks up this thread, examining the costs of violent political rhetoric for our society and the future of democracy. The Politics of Resentment traces the rise of especially violent rhetoric in American public discourse by investigating key events in American history. Engels analyzes how resentful rhetoric has long been used by public figures in order to achieve political ends. He goes on to show how a more devastating form of resentment started in the 1960s, dividing Americans on issues of structural inequalities and foreign policy. He discusses, for example, the rhetorical and political contexts that have made the mobilization of groups such as Nixon’s “silent majority” and the present Tea Party possible. Now, in an age of recession and sequestration, many Americans believe that they have been given a raw deal and experience feelings of injustice in reaction to events beyond individual control. With The Politics of Resentment, Engels wants to make these feelings of victimhood politically productive by challenging the toxic rhetoric that takes us there, by defusing it, and by enabling citizens to have the kinds of conversations we need to have in order to fight for life, liberty, and equality.

Divided We Fall

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Author :
Publisher : St. Martin's Press
ISBN 13 : 1250201985
Total Pages : 153 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (52 download)

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Book Synopsis Divided We Fall by : David French

Download or read book Divided We Fall written by David French and published by St. Martin's Press. This book was released on 2020-09-22 with total page 153 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: David French warns of the potential dangers to the country—and the world—if we don’t summon the courage to reconcile our political differences. Two decades into the 21st Century, the U.S. is less united than at any time in our history since the Civil War. We are more diverse in our beliefs and culture than ever before. But red and blue states, secular and religious groups, liberal and conservative idealists, and Republican and Democratic representatives all have one thing in common: each believes their distinct cultures and liberties are being threatened by an escalating violent opposition. This polarized tribalism, espoused by the loudest, angriest fringe extremists on both the left and the right, dismisses dialogue as appeasement; if left unchecked, it could very well lead to secession. An engaging mix of cutting edge research and fair-minded analysis, Divided We Fall is an unblinking look at the true dimensions and dangers of this widening ideological gap, and what could happen if we don't take steps toward bridging it. French reveals chilling, plausible scenarios of how the United States could fracture into regions that will not only weaken the country but destabilize the world. But our future is not written in stone. By implementing James Madison’s vision of pluralism—that all people have the right to form communities representing their personal values—we can prevent oppressive factions from seizing absolute power and instead maintain everyone’s beliefs and identities across all fifty states. Reestablishing national unity will require the bravery to commit ourselves to embracing qualities of kindness, decency, and grace towards those we disagree with ideologically. French calls on all of us to demonstrate true tolerance so we can heal the American divide. If we want to remain united, we must learn to stand together again.

American Exception

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Author :
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1510769145
Total Pages : 460 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis American Exception by : Aaron Good

Download or read book American Exception written by Aaron Good and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2022-06-21 with total page 460 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: American Exception seeks to explain the breakdown of US democracy. In particular, how we can understand the uncanny continuity of American foreign policy, the breakdown of the rule of law, and the extreme concentration of wealth and power into an overworld of the corporate rich. To trace the evolution of the American state, the author takes a deep politics approach, shedding light on those political practices that are typically repressed in “mainstream” discourse. In its long history before World War II, the US had a deep political system—a system of governance in which decision-making and enforcement were carried out within—and outside of—public institutions. It was a system that always included some degree of secretive collusion and law-breaking. After World War II, US elites decided to pursue global dominance over the international capitalist system. Setting aside the liberal rhetoric, this project was pursued in a manner that was by and large imperialistic rather than progressive. To administer this covert empire, US elites created a massive national security state characterized by unprecedented levels of secrecy and lawlessness. The “Global Communist Conspiracy” provided a pretext for exceptionism—an endless “exception” to the rule of law. What gradually emerged after World War II was a tripartite state system of governance. The open democratic state and the authoritarian security state were both increasingly dominated by an American deep state. The term deep state was badly misappropriated during the Trump era. In the simplest sense, it herein refers to all those institutions that collectively exercise undemocratic power over state and society. To trace how we arrived at this point, American Exception explores various deep state institutions and history-making interventions. Key institutions involve the relationships between the overworld of the corporate rich, the underworld of organized crime, and the national security actors that mediate between them. History-making interventions include the toppling of foreign governments, the launching of aggressive wars, and the political assassinations of the 1960s. The book concludes by assessing the prospects for a revival of US democracy.