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Author : J. E. Board
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 24 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (338 download)
Download or read book Strategies for Increasing Soybean Yields at Late Planting Dates written by J. E. Board and published by . This book was released on 1995 with total page 24 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author : Alexandre Stefani Barreiro
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 117 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (932 download)
Download or read book Increasing Yield of Late-planted Soybean Through Management Practices in the Southern Great Plains written by Alexandre Stefani Barreiro and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 117 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Increased soybean commodity prices and high-yielding cultivars have instigated producers to expand soybean production outside traditional regions. Introduction of soybean to relatively new areas such as the Southern Great Plains, has created the need for management practices unique to the region to exploit full yield potential in these environments. Oklahoma soybean production, for instance, frequently results in low yields due its adverse environmental conditions, along with common late-plantings, as a double crop following wheat harvest. Due to soybean photoperiod sensitivity, delayed planting leads to a shortened vegetative growth period, which potentially reduces seed yield. The influence of management practices, such as seeding rate, row spacing, maturity group selection, starter and foliar fertilization, irrigation, and the use of long juvenile soybean lines, on late-planted soybean yields has not yet been evaluated in the Southern Great Plains. The objectives of this study are to evaluate the effect of these specific management strategies on late-planted soybean yields and their potential adoption in the Southern Great Plains to minimize yield losses in these late production systems. Four different field studies were established on late plantings in Oklahoma as followed by numbers 1, 2, 3, and 4: 1) Four seeding rates ranging from 198,000 to 383,000 seeds ha-1, three row spacings (19, 38, and 76 cm) and two maturity groups (4.8 and 5.6) under rainfed conditions. Seed yield, plant population, canopy cover, and partial economic return were analyzed. Seed yield was not affected by seeding density, but yield results for 38 and 76 cm row spacings showed slight advantage to 19 cm rows. Partial economic return of 38 and 76 cm rows ranged from 13 to 25% greater than 19 cm row spacing, with the greatest returns at the lowest seeding densities. 2) Three soybean lines from maturity group (MG) 6, 7, and 8 carrying the long juvenile trait (LJ) were compared to three high-yielding varieties from MG 3, 4, and 5, in four planting dates from late-May to late-June. Vegetative growth period, canopy cover, seed yield, and seed quality were evaluated. Long juvenile soybean lines had greater growth but similar yields compared to non LJ varieties, due to the extended growth period overlapping early reproductive stages diminishing seed production potential. 3) Fertilization strategies including two starter and four foliar treatments were compared to a control treatment with no fertilizer applied. Starter or foliar treatments resulted in no seed yield differences compared to control treatment. 4) Soybean from MGs 4.8 and 5.6 were sown in 19 and 76 cm row spacings at three seeding rates (247,000, 346,000, and 445,000 seeds ha-1 were tested under irrigated conditions and seed yield evaluated. Seed yield of late-planted soybean under irrigation was affected only by MG. Seeding rate and row spacing had no effect on yield. Average yield of MG 4.8, across row spacings and years was 2620 kg ha−1, which was 25 % greater than MG 5.6 yield (1980 kg ha−1).
Author : Nicholas Ryan Bateman
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 161 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (993 download)
Download or read book Impact of Planting Date and Maturity Group on Management Strategies for Insect Pests in Soybean written by Nicholas Ryan Bateman and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 161 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Soybean accounts from more than half of the acres dedicated to row crop production in the mid-south, leading to a wide planting window from late-March through mid-July. Studies were conducted in 2013 and 2014 evaluating seven planting dates of soybean, and their impact on agronomics. As planting was delayed, plant heights significantly increased, increasing the potential for lodging. Canopy closure significantly decreased as planting was delayed, leaving soybean more vulnerable to caterpillar pests. Yield potential also significantly decreased as planting was delayed. Season long surveys of insect pests and their arthropod natural enemies were conducted from 2013 to 2014 in small plot studies, and in large plot studies from 2015 to 2016 across multiple planting dates. The most common insect pests encountered in both studies were bean leaf beetles, the stink bug complex, and soybean looper. The most common natural enemies encountered were lady beetles, spiders, and the assassin bug complex. In general, insect pests densities increased as planting was delayed, whereas natural enemies were higher in earlier plantings or had no change throughout the planting windows. With the increased difficulty of controlling some caterpillar pests such as soybean looper, new control tactics need to be evaluated. A simulated Bt treatment was evaluated against a threshold, bug only, and untreated control across multiple plantings in 2013 and 2014. The simulated Bt treatment yielded significantly higher than the untreated control at plantings from early June through mid-July. These were the only plantings that reached action threshold for soybean looper. The simulated Bt and threshold treatments were not significantly different from one another. In 2015 and 2016, a simulated Bt treatment plus threshold was evaluated in a late planting situation. The simulated Bt plus threshold treatment yielded significantly higher than the untreated control at the early-June and early-July plantings. Also in 2015 and 2016, the simulated Bt treatment was evaluated against a grower check on producer fields at 23 locations. The simulated Bt treatment resulted in significantly higher soybean yields than the grower check.
Author : Mengxuan Hu
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (855 download)
Download or read book Effects of Late Planting Dates, Maturity Groups and Management Systems on Growth, Development and Yield of Soybean in South Carolina written by Mengxuan Hu and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract: Planting date plays a significant role in determining soybean growth, development and seed yield. The objectives of this experiment were to evaluate the effects of late planting date, management system, and maturity group on the growth, development and seed yield of maturity group VII and VIII soybean under dry land conditions in the Southeastern coastal plain of the United States. Plant growth and development, seed yield, yield components, and seed oil and protein concentrations were evaluated throughout the season. These experiments were conducted in South Carolina at the Edisto Research and Education Center near Blackville and the Pee Dee Research and Education Center near Florence. Soybean was planted at four weekly intervals starting on 15-June in both 2011 and 2012. Pioneer 97M50 (a MG VII determinate variety) and Prichard Roundup Ready (a MG VIII determinate variety) were selected based on their adaptation to the Southeast. The two management systems were: a strip-till (ST) system using a John Deere MaxEmerge Vaccum planter + Unverferth 300 strip till with 96-cm row spacing and a drilled no-till (NT) planting system with 19-cm row spacing. Plant growth was evaluated based on leaf area index (LAI), Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI), and plant height (HT). Plant development was calculated based on the duration (days) of growth stages. Growth stages were recorded weekly from 10 randomly selected plants in each plot. The beginning of each stage was determined when at least 50% of plants were at that stage. Overall, planting after 22 June appeared to reduce seed yield. The ST system increased the seed yield compared to the drilled NT system. Yields were greater for the MG VIII variety than the MG VII variety. LAI, NDVI, and HT at R2 and R4 were generally reduced with delayed planting dates. Later planting shortened the duration of both vegetative and reproductive growth stages for both MG VII and VIII soybeans. Shortened duration of vegetative growth and seed filling period might have contributed most to the lower yields observed in delayed planting dates. Planting date did not affect either protein or oil concentration. Protein concentration in the seed was found to be significantly higher and oil concentration lower in soybean grown in the ST system than in the drilled NT system. Positive correlations were found between: seed yield and LAI, NDVI, and HT at R2 and R4; seed yield and duration of vegetative and seed filling growth period; and seed yield and dry weight of each plant part (branches, stems, petioles, leaves, and pods).
Author : Cassandra Tkachuk
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (135 download)
Download or read book Evaluation of Soybean (Glycine Max) Planting Dates and Plant Densities in Northern Growing Regions of the Northern Great Plains written by Cassandra Tkachuk and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) planting date and plant density are agronomic decisions made simultaneously at the beginning of the growing season that can be used to maximize yield and economic return. Research on these basic soybean agronomic decisions must be conducted to support the expansion of soybean production in northern growing regions of the Northern Great Plains (NGP). The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effects of planting dates based on soil temperature on soybean emergence, maturity, and yield for short and long season varieties in Manitoba, and to determine optimum soybean plant density for early to very late planting dates in northern growing regions of the NGP. In the first experiment, calendar date had a greater influence than soil temperature at planting on soybean yield. Soybean yield declined with later planting rather than increasing soil temperature at planting. The earliest planting dates resulted in the greatest soybean yields. In the second experiment, soybean yield-density relationships were responsive to planting date. Yield-density relationships formed early/mid (May 4 to 26) and late/very late (June 2 to 23) planting date groups for combined site years. Early/mid planting dates resulted in greater maximum yields. According to the yield-density model, true yield maximization did not occur for any planting dates and site years within the range of plant densities tested in this field study. Soybean economic optimum seed densities (EOSDs) were much lower than predicted plant densities that maximized yield. Soybean EOSDs were identified as 492,000 and 314,000 seeds ha-1 by marginal cost analysis for early/mid and late/very late planting, respectfully. These values were sensitive to changes in soybean grain price and seed cost. Thus, growers need to adjust EOSDs for changes in price and cost. A combined analysis of soybean yields from both experiments using similar target plant densities determined that a significant negative linear relationship existed between soybean yield and planting date. The greatest soybean yields resulted from early planting and declined by 16 kg ha-1 for each one-day delay in planting from Apr 27 to June 16. However, yield responses varied among site years. The overall recommendation from this study would be to plant soybeans during the month of May at a profit-maximizing seed density, accounting for fluctuating grain price and seed cost.
Author : Thomas Bernard Siler
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 98 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (57 download)
Download or read book Identifying Optimal Management Decisions Based on Soybean Planting Date written by Thomas Bernard Siler and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 98 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The practice of early-season soybean [Glycine Max (L.) Merr.] planting has been increasing in the northern US. However, a wide range of planting dates (PDs) are still implemented due to poor soil conditions, inclement weather, equipment restrictions, crop rotation, and operation size. Information regarding how soybean management decisions should be adjusted based on PD is lacking in Michigan and other northern US regions. This research was conducted to identify how optimal soybean seeding rate (SR), seed treatment (ST) use, and variety maturity group (MG) selection is determined by PD. Field experiments were conducted at two locations in Michigan during the 2018 and 2019 growing season. In the first experiment, soybean was planted at five SRs, between 123,553 and 518,921 seeds ha−1, with or without a ST, on four PDs (late-April to late-June). In the second experiment, six soybean MGs, between 1.0 and 3.5, were planted on four PDs (late-April to late-June). The use of a ST did not improve yield or net returns in this study. When soybean was planted before mid-May, seed yield and net returns were maximized by planting a late MG (≥ 3.0) at a SR between 187,660 and 201,451 seeds ha−1. The optimal SR between the mid-May and early-June PDs was between 220,301 and 265,305 seeds ha−1 and MG selection had less influence on seed yield compared to earlier PDs. When planting was delayed to late-June, using an early MG (≤ 2.5) resulted in the optimal yield and the optimal SR was > 330,000. Results from this study show that soybean yield, quality, and net returns can be improved by adjusting management practices based on PD.
Author : Adam Paul Gaspar
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 146 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (964 download)
Download or read book Planting Date and Maturity Group Selection to Maximize Soybean Yield and Subsequent Dry Matter and Nutrient Uptake, Partitioning, and Removal written by Adam Paul Gaspar and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page 146 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As soybeans have become a major U.S. crop and key component in different cropping systems over the past half century, advancements in breeding and production practices have shown gains in yield and economic profitability for producers. Important production considerations included soil fertility, proper maturity group (MG) selection, and planting date. In southern Wisconsin, maximum yields are reduced by 21.2 kg ha-1 day-1 after May 10th (Gaspar and Conley, 2015). Growers have realized this effect and gradually shifted their soybean planting earlier. However, some believe that while producers are planting earlier and experiencing a longer growing season, they have not adequately adjusted their soybean MG’s. Coincident with earlier planting dates is the increased risk of sub-optimal stands and the need for replanting some years. Proper replanting methods (fill-in) and optimal final plant stands (>247,000 plants ha-1) have been determined by Gaspar and Conley (2015) but again, the proper MG to use in replant or essentially late planting scenarios to maximize yield and avoid fall frost damage is unclear. This document provides data demonstrating the importance of MG selection and the negative impact of delayed planting in the Northern Corn Belt. Economically and environmentally sustainable soil fertility programs are a necessity for modern soybean production systems. Unfortunately, soybean nutrient uptake and partitioning models are primarily built from work conducted in the early 1960’s with obsolete soybean genetics and production practices (Hanway and Weber, 1971a; Hanway and Weber, 1971b). Since the 1960’s, yields have nearly doubled to 2906 kg ha-1 in 2013 (USDA-NASS, 2014b) and soybean physiology has been altered with approximately one additional week of reproductive growth (Rowntree et al., 2014) and greater harvest index’s (HI) (Kumudini et al., 2001) for currently cultivated varieties. More precise and accurate estimates have the potential to increase grower profitability by applying only what the crop needs while possibly decreasing the environmental impact in terms of nutrient loads in the Mississippi watershed, which accounts for more than 90% of all US soybean acres (USDA-ERS, 2014). This document highlights large changes in nutrient uptake, partitioning, and removal of current soybean genetics and production practices.
Author : John Hartley North
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 115 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (111 download)
Download or read book Impact of Early Season Insect Management Decisions on Yield of Soybean written by John Hartley North and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 115 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To determine the optimal seeding rate and utilization of seed treatment combinations for maximizing soybean yield within optimal and late planting dates. Also, experiments were conducted to quantify effects of soybean stand loss and to determine optimal seeding rates at various planting dates comparing three seed treatments. Experiments were conducted to test influence of planter type and seeding rate on soybean. Soybean seed treated with at planting insecticides showed no difference in yield compared to fungicide only treated seed. Also, yields were maximized at low seeding rates where no stand loss occurred. Soybean yields benefited from where seeding rates were increased at 20% and 40% stand loss. Higher seeding rates can provide significant risk of yield and economic losses if no stand loss occurs. Optimal plantings can significantly increase soybean yields compared to later plantings. There was a significant difference in yield where fungicide only treated seed was planted compared to seed treated with a neonicotinoid. Low seeding rates maximized yield at optimal planting dates but were penalized at late planting dates. Soybean yields benefited from increased seeding rates at the later planting dates but there was no difference in any of the seed treatments compared to untreated soybean. Also, there was less variation in inter-spacing of plants at the lower seeding rate compared to higher seeding rate when using the cone planter compared to the other planter types. There was no difference in yield for soybean planted with any of the evaluated planter types. Yield differences were observed from higher seeding rate compared to low seeding rate.
Author : Fabiano Colet
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (135 download)
Download or read book Soybean Planting Date and Seeding Rate Effects on Stand Loss, Grain Yield, Agronomic Optimum Seeding Rate, Partial Net Economic Return, and Seed Quality written by Fabiano Colet and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Planting soybean early (late April through early May) is recommended to achieve high grain yields. However, unfavorable conditions can limit farmers’ ability to plant during the recommended period, and thus, an increase in the seeding rate may be necessary. Also, weather conditions can affect seed quality, and choosing an adequate planting date can mitigate the impacts of unfavorable weather on the seed. Thus, the objectives of this study were to (1) measure the effect of planting date and seeding rate on stand loss over the growing season, (2) measure the effect of soybean seeding rate and planting date on grain yield, (3) identify the agronomic optimum soybean seeding rate (AOSR) and the partial economic return for the lowest and highest soybean price, and (4) measure the effect of soybean planting date and seeding rate on harvested seed mass, seed germination, and seedling vigor. For these objectives, a field study was conducted for two growing seasons at two locations in Ohio: Western (WARS) and Northwest (NWARS) Agricultural Research Stations. The experimental design used was a split-plot randomized complete block with four replications. The main plot factor was four planting dates ranging from 25 April through 10 July, and the split-plot factor was five seeding rates ranging from 123,500 to 618,000 seeds ha-1. At WARS-2020, planting soybeans in April through early June had a similar grain yield (5,090-5,285 kg ha-1), while there was a reduction in grain yield when soybean was planted in late June (4,216 kg ha-1). In contrast, in WARS-2021, planting dates did not statically influence grain yield. At NWARS-2020, a small amount of rainfall during the pod-setting growth stages (R3-R4 stages) impacted and reduced the grain yield for soybeans planted in April (3,113 kg ha-1) and May (2,909 kg ha-1) when compared to soybean planted on early-June (3,595 kg ha-1). The AOSR changed among site-years. For soybean grown under normal weather conditions, the AOSR needed to be increased as planting was delayed to achieve the highest grain yield. The planting date factor also impacted soybean seed quality. The germination rate in all site-years was above 94%; however, soybean planted in early June had the lowest seedling vigor results (64 to 81%) compared to other planting dates (80 to 89%) in both locations. These findings can help growers improve grain yield, increase economic return, and produce high-quality seeds.
Author : Larry P. Pedigo
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1000141217
Total Pages : 732 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (1 download)
Download or read book Handbook of Sampling Methods for Arthropods in Agriculture written by Larry P. Pedigo and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2020-08-26 with total page 732 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Handbook of Sampling Methods for Arthropods in Agriculture offers a comprehensive look at the principles and practicality of developing accurate sampling programs for arthropod pests and their arthropod enemies. The book examines developments in sampling populations and reviews sampling plans that produce accurate and affordable population estimates. The text stresses practicality, as well as the theoretical background of sampling. This book will be an indispensable reference for researchers, students, and practitioners in entomology and agriculture.
Author : Shane Michael Carver
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 46 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (14 download)
Download or read book Impact of Planting Strategies on Soybean (Glycine Max L.) Growth, Development and Yield written by Shane Michael Carver and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 46 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Soybean seed is one of the most costly inputs for soybean producers. Research was conducted in 2016 and 2017 in Mississippi to evaluate the impact of row spacing, planting date and seeding rate on soybean yield. Additional research was conducted to determine the optimal replant seeding rate, following a sub-optimal stand of soybean, to maximize soybean yield. These data suggest an early planting date, mid-April, at a seeding rate of 296,400 seeds ha−1 , no matter the row spacing, resulted in the greatest soybean yield. No yield differences were observed for a replant seeding rate of 160,500 seeds ha−1 added to a 50% reduced stand when compared to the optimum stand treatment. Soybean yield was greater for the optimum stand treatment when compared to complete removal followed by full replant treatment, or 321,000 seeds ha−1 .
Author : J. E. Board
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 36 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (31 download)
Download or read book Factors Involved in Soybean Yield Losses at Nonoptimal Planting Times in Louisiana written by J. E. Board and published by . This book was released on 1985 with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author : D. J. Boquet
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 32 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (31 download)
Download or read book Row Spacing and Planting Date Effect on Yield and Growth Responses of Soybeans written by D. J. Boquet and published by . This book was released on 1983 with total page 32 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author : Carrie Catherine Ortel
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 208 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (111 download)
Download or read book Evaluation of Soybean Maturity Group and Planting Date in a Soybean-rice Rotation on Overall Crop Productivity written by Carrie Catherine Ortel and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Little is known about the effects of soybean (Glycine max L.) management techniques on soil-nitrogen (N) credit development and its impact on the subsequent rice (Oryza sativa L.) crop's success. This study was conducted to determine how soybean maturity group (MG) and planting date effect overall soybean productivity and its influence on the following rice crop. Various soybean planting dates (optimum and late) and MGs (3.5, 4.7, 5.4, and 5.6) were grown and followed in rotation with a rice crop. Six rates of pre-flood fertilizer-N (0, 44, 89, 134, 179, 224 kg N ha-1) were applied to the rice crop. Soybean grain yield was significantly different amongst MGs in both 2016 (P = 0.0012) and 2017 (P = 0.0004), with the 4.7 relative MG consistently yielding the highest. Soybean total N uptake (TNU) increased with increasing grain yield (P = 0.0167) when all site years were analyzed together. The net N returned to the soil through biomass residue was not significantly influenced by planting date (P = 0.7796) or MG (P = 0.3475).The rice grown in clay soil produced a higher grain yield when following a 5.4 MG soybean (P
Author : Andy Clark
Publisher : DIANE Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1437903797
Total Pages : 248 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (379 download)
Download or read book Managing Cover Crops Profitably (3rd Ed. ) written by Andy Clark and published by DIANE Publishing. This book was released on 2008-07 with total page 248 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Cover crops slow erosion, improve soil, smother weeds, enhance nutrient and moisture availability, help control many pests and bring a host of other benefits to your farm. At the same time, they can reduce costs, increase profits and even create new sources of income. You¿ll reap dividends on your cover crop investments for years, since their benefits accumulate over the long term. This book will help you find which ones are right for you. Captures farmer and other research results from the past ten years. The authors verified the info. from the 2nd ed., added new results and updated farmer profiles and research data, and added 2 chap. Includes maps and charts, detailed narratives about individual cover crop species, and chap. about aspects of cover cropping.
Author : Muhammad Kamal
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 106 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (26 download)
Download or read book Seed Yield, Yield Components and Growth Dynamics of Determinate Soybean as Affected by Narrow-row Culture at Late Planting Dates written by Muhammad Kamal and published by . This book was released on 1991 with total page 106 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Author : Minobu Kasai
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 1789853737
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (898 download)
Download or read book Soybean written by Minobu Kasai and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2019-02-20 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Plants are important for a permanent ecosystem, because in the ecological pyramid plants support all the other living organisms at the base. Very important organization is thought to be the integral process of resource, transport, partitioning, metabolism, and production, which involves yield, biomass, and productivity in plants. Accordingly, it is important to obtain more information about the knowledge concerning yield, biomass, and productivity in plants. Soybean is one of the main crops largely contributing to our life, which is thought to be connected to our ecosystem through the above-mentioned integral process. This book focuses on the soybean, and reviews and research concerning the yield, biomass, and productivity of soybean are presented herein. This text updates the book published in 2017. Although there are many difficulties, the main aim of this book is to present a basis for the above-mentioned integral processes of resource, transport, partitioning, metabolism, and production, which involves yield, biomass, and productivity in plants (soybean), and to understand what supports this basis and the integral process. It is hoped that this and the preceding book will be essential reads.
