Multinational Enterprise Political Risk And Organisational Change

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Multinational Enterprise, Political Risk and Organisational Change

Author : Neil Forbes
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1351692313
Total Pages : 234 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (516 download)

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Book Synopsis Multinational Enterprise, Political Risk and Organisational Change by : Neil Forbes

Download or read book Multinational Enterprise, Political Risk and Organisational Change written by Neil Forbes and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018-12-17 with total page 234 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Hitherto, the organization of international business has been studied mostly from a managerial point of view or by examining the relationship between firms and the economy. Yet, the development of the modern, multinational firm - the most important type of business organisation - has been strongly influenced by the conflicts that bedeviled the twentieth century. The volatile macroeconomic and political environments experienced by international business point to how important it is to study political risk. Consequently, Multinational Enterprise, Political Risk and Organisational Change: From Total War to Cold War breaks new ground: it argues that non-market elements and historical context are key to understanding the way international business has been organised. This edited volume offers an historical approach to analysing how multinational enterprise has developed over time and around the world, through a series of well-crafted chapters, on important topics in international economic and business history, written by authorities in their respective fields of study and research. The study is based on the underlying premise that the coming of the two World Wars, the devastating and long-term consequences of such total wars, and the ideological challenge of the Cold War acted as a pivot points in shaping the nature and character of multinational firms. By examining such phenomena, this study offers insights to anyone who has an interest in business, economic or political history, management and business studies, or international relations. Chapter 1 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF at http://www.taylorfrancis.com under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

Political Risk and the Multinational Company

Author : Jo Jakobsen
Publisher : Fagbokforlaget
ISBN 13 : 9788251928571
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (285 download)

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Book Synopsis Political Risk and the Multinational Company by : Jo Jakobsen

Download or read book Political Risk and the Multinational Company written by Jo Jakobsen and published by Fagbokforlaget. This book was released on 2012 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is about political risk for multinational companies. It describes and analyzes the complex, conflicting relationships between politics and international business. First, a theoretical framework is meticulously constructed. Second, a new dataset on political risk is presented and analyzed. Third, a statistical investigation of the relationship between risks and the location decisions of multinationals is performed. Eye-catching examples of political risk phenomena - such as kidnappings, nationalizations, and armed conflicts - are presented and commented upon throughout the text. The broad focus and real-world examples will provide valuable lessons for business managers, government officials, political risk analysts, and insurers and, more broadly, all students of global affairs and international business.

Political Risk

Author : Condoleezza Rice
Publisher : Hachette UK
ISBN 13 : 1455542369
Total Pages : 292 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (555 download)

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Book Synopsis Political Risk by : Condoleezza Rice

Download or read book Political Risk written by Condoleezza Rice and published by Hachette UK. This book was released on 2018-05-01 with total page 292 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From New York Times bestselling author and former U.S. secretary of state Condoleezza Rice and Stanford University professor Amy B. Zegart comes an examination of the rapidly evolving state of political risk, and how to navigate it. The world is changing fast. Political risk-the probability that a political action could significantly impact a company's business-is affecting more businesses in more ways than ever before. A generation ago, political risk mostly involved a handful of industries dealing with governments in a few frontier markets. Today, political risk stems from a widening array of actors, including Twitter users, local officials, activists, terrorists, hackers, and more. The very institutions and laws that were supposed to reduce business uncertainty and risk are often having the opposite effect. In today's globalized world, there are no "safe" bets. POLITICAL RISK investigates and analyzes this evolving landscape, what businesses can do to navigate it, and what all of us can learn about how to better understand and grapple with these rapidly changing global political dynamics. Drawing on lessons from the successes and failures of companies across multiple industries as well as examples from aircraft carrier operations, NASA missions, and other unusual places, POLITICAL RISK offers a first-of-its-kind framework that can be deployed in any organization, from startups to Fortune 500 companies. Organizations that take a serious, systematic approach to political risk management are likely to be surprised less often and recover better. Companies that don't get these basics right are more likely to get blindsided.

Managing Political Risk Assessment

Author : Stephen J. Kobrin
Publisher : Univ of California Press
ISBN 13 : 0520310098
Total Pages : 238 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Managing Political Risk Assessment by : Stephen J. Kobrin

Download or read book Managing Political Risk Assessment written by Stephen J. Kobrin and published by Univ of California Press. This book was released on 2024-03-29 with total page 238 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The accurate assessment of political risk can make the difference between success and failure for a multinational corporation, which must keep corporate objectives in sight while operating in a large number of widely varying environments. While environmental or political risk assessment has become an explicit function in many firms and is inherent in all foreign investment, the uncertainties of foreign political environments continue to pose critical problems for managers. In Managing Political Risk Assessment, Stephen J. Kobrin describes and analyzes the techniques of political risk assessment employed by U.S. multinationals. His analysis draws on organizational theory, economics, political science, and international relations. The study reveals that those charged with political risk assessment have often not been fully integrated into the core of the managerial process, information from subsidiaries is often biased, and the flow of data is poorly controlled. As a result, virtually all firms experience difficulties in using environmental assessment in planning and making decisions. Kobrin persuasively argues that the thorough integration of the assessment function into the managerial process is a necessary step, as the need for political risk assessment intensifies with the increased interaction between international business and its social and political surroundings. Political scientists, institutional economists, managers, and students and teachers of international business will all profit from Kobrin’s excellent synthesis of knowledge in this area of scholarly interest. This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press’s mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1982.

Managing Political Risk Assessment

Author : Stephen J. Kobrin
Publisher : Univ of California Press
ISBN 13 : 0520304969
Total Pages : 238 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Managing Political Risk Assessment by : Stephen J. Kobrin

Download or read book Managing Political Risk Assessment written by Stephen J. Kobrin and published by Univ of California Press. This book was released on 2022-03-25 with total page 238 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The accurate assessment of political risk can make the difference between success and failure for a multinational corporation, which must keep corporate objectives in sight while operating in a large number of widely varying environments. While environmental or political risk assessment has become an explicit function in many firms and is inherent in all foreign investment, the uncertainties of foreign political environments continue to pose critical problems for managers. In Managing Political Risk Assessment, Stephen J. Kobrin describes and analyzes the techniques of political risk assessment employed by U.S. multinationals. His analysis draws on organizational theory, economics, political science, and international relations. The study reveals that those charged with political risk assessment have often not been fully integrated into the core of the managerial process, information from subsidiaries is often biased, and the flow of data is poorly controlled. As a result, virtually all firms experience difficulties in using environmental assessment in planning and making decisions. Kobrin persuasively argues that the thorough integration of the assessment function into the managerial process is a necessary step, as the need for political risk assessment intensifies with the increased interaction between international business and its social and political surroundings. Political scientists, institutional economists, managers, and students and teachers of international business will all profit from Kobrin’s excellent synthesis of knowledge in this area of scholarly interest. This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press’s mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1982.

Political Risks in International Business

Author : Thomas L. Brewer
Publisher : Greenwood
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 392 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Political Risks in International Business by : Thomas L. Brewer

Download or read book Political Risks in International Business written by Thomas L. Brewer and published by Greenwood. This book was released on 1985 with total page 392 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Security and Insecurity in Business History

Author : Mark Jakob
Publisher : Nomos Verlag
ISBN 13 : 3748924577
Total Pages : 282 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (489 download)

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Book Synopsis Security and Insecurity in Business History by : Mark Jakob

Download or read book Security and Insecurity in Business History written by Mark Jakob and published by Nomos Verlag. This book was released on 2021-04-22 with total page 282 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In der Unternehmensgeschichte wurde das Thema "Sicherheit" bislang wenig systematisch bearbeitet. Der Band macht einen ersten Versuch, die Ansätze der Historischen Sicherheitsforschung auf Unternehmen anzuwenden und die historische Dynamik von "Sicherheit" jenseits statischer Risikobegriffe an Fallbeispielen seit dem späten 19. Jahrhundert zu analysieren. Gemäß den theoretischen Annahmen der Historischen Sicherheitsforschung gehen wir davon aus, dass die konkrete Bedeutung von "Sicherheit" im jeweiligen historischen Zusammenhang verhandelt wurde. Die Sicherheitserwartungen von Unternehmen können nicht allein aus ihrer Orientierung an Marktrisiken erklärt werden. Ihre Wahrnehmung von Risiko und Gefahr folgte historisch wandelbaren "Sicherheitsgrammatiken". Mit Beiträgen von Marcus Böick, Christian Kleinschmidt, Mark Jakob & Nina Kleinöder, Sabine Pitteloud, Kristin Stanwick Bårnås, Christian Marx, Ole Sparenberg, Sascha Brünig und Eva Schäffler. Dieser Band steht im Zusammenhang mit der Nomos-Schriftenreihe "Politiken der Sicherheit", die vom Sonderforschungsbereich/Transregio 138 "Dynamiken der Sicherheit" an den Universitäten Marburg und Gießen herausgegeben und unterstützt wird.

Main types of political risks experienced by MNEs

Author : Svenja Martina Gnosa
Publisher : GRIN Verlag
ISBN 13 : 3640962044
Total Pages : 12 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (49 download)

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Book Synopsis Main types of political risks experienced by MNEs by : Svenja Martina Gnosa

Download or read book Main types of political risks experienced by MNEs written by Svenja Martina Gnosa and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2011-07-19 with total page 12 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Essay from the year 2011 in the subject Business economics - Marketing, Corporate Communication, CRM, Market Research, Social Media, grade: 1,3, University of St Andrews (School of Management), language: English, abstract: Identify the main types of political risk encountered by multinational corporations and discuss how these risks can be minimized. Introduction The controversy between the Kazak government and the Italian oil company ENI about the exploitation of Kashagan ́s oil fields is only one out of many cases, in which political violence acts or governmental decisions threatened foreign investments of a multinational enterprise (MNE). In April 2006, the Dacion and Jusepin oil fields, operated by ENI and the French company Total, were taken over by the Venezuelan government, because they rejected to change their business operations into joint ventures with the state-owned oil company PDVSA (Ferrari and Rolfini 2008). Stated by Kesternich and Schnitzer (2009) some recent empirical studies identified that for MNEs political risk is one of the most important factors when considering a foreign investment. Foreign investments nowadays seem to be even more risky in terms of pollution that result in natural catastrophes such as caused by BP (Heller 2011), cultural conflicts or political disturbances for which Lybia (Yang 2011) represents a recent example and an increasing social disparity (Bloch, Koepplinger and Wolfrum 2007) [...]

Nation-States and the Multinational Corporation

Author : Nathan M. Jensen
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 1400837375
Total Pages : 212 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Nation-States and the Multinational Corporation by : Nathan M. Jensen

Download or read book Nation-States and the Multinational Corporation written by Nathan M. Jensen and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2008-01-21 with total page 212 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: What makes a country attractive to foreign investors? To what extent do conditions of governance and politics matter? This book provides the most systematic exploration to date of these crucial questions at the nexus of politics and economics. Using quantitative data and interviews with investment promotion agencies, investment location consultants, political risk insurers, and decision makers at multinational corporations, Nathan Jensen arrives at a surprising conclusion: Countries may be competing for international capital, but government fiscal policy--both taxation and spending--has little impact on multinationals' investment decisions. Although government policy has a limited ability to determine patterns of foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows, political institutions are central to explaining why some countries are more successful in attracting international capital. First, democratic institutions lower political risks for multinational corporations. Indeed, they lead to massive amounts of foreign direct investment. Second, politically federal institutions, in contrast to fiscally federal institutions, lower political risks for multinationals and allow host countries to attract higher levels of FDI inflows. Third, the International Monetary Fund, often cited as a catalyst for promoting foreign investment, actually deters multinationals from investment in countries under IMF programs. Even after controlling for the factors that lead countries to seek IMF support, IMF agreements are associated with much lower levels of FDI inflows.

International Business, Multi-Nationals, and the Nationality of the Company

Author : Boris Gehlen
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1003829740
Total Pages : 263 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

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Book Synopsis International Business, Multi-Nationals, and the Nationality of the Company by : Boris Gehlen

Download or read book International Business, Multi-Nationals, and the Nationality of the Company written by Boris Gehlen and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2023-12-11 with total page 263 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book discusses challenges that arise for multinational companies from not having a single ‘nationality’ and being exposed to a variety of simultaneous country-specific, legally, and culturally constructed nationalities at home and abroad. Brexit, America First campaigns, Russia’s war against Ukraine, or the ever-tenser relationship between China and the US have led to raising concerns about foreign direct investments. Multinational companies are pressured to withdraw from countries and reorganise global value chains. The long-held confidence that ‘nationality’ does not matter for multinational companies in the globalised economy has dwindled. Today, companies doing business abroad are exposed to implications of their ‘nationality’ because governments and customers react upon the ‘nationality’ of a firm or a product as they did in the 20th century. The chapters in this book address many international business domains, covering political risk, liability of foreignness, cultural distance, headquarters change, and tax planning. They use different methodological approaches to analyse European and US-based MNEs in Europe, Africa, and South-East Asia from 1900 to 1980. The book argues that ‘nationality’ is not a ghost from the past in international business, it is a topic that requires substantial consideration. The chapters in this book were originally published in the journal Business History.

Histories of Tax Evasion, Avoidance and Resistance

Author : Korinna Schönhärl
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000823903
Total Pages : 324 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Histories of Tax Evasion, Avoidance and Resistance by : Korinna Schönhärl

Download or read book Histories of Tax Evasion, Avoidance and Resistance written by Korinna Schönhärl and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-12-05 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Tax evasion, tax avoidance and tax resistance are widespread phenomena in political, economic, social and fiscal history from antiquity through medieval, early modern and modern times. Histories of Tax Evasion, Avoidance and Resistance shows how different groups and individuals around the globe have succeeded or failed in not paying their due taxes, whether in kind or in cash, on their properties or on their crops. It analyses how, throughout history, wealthy and poor taxpayers have tried to avoid or reduce their tax burden by negotiating with tax authorities, through practices of legal or illegal tax evasion, by filing lawsuits, seeking armed resistance or by migration, and how state authorities have dealt with such acts of claim making, defiance, open resistance or elusion. It fills an important research gap in tax history, addressing questions of tax morale and fairness, and how social and political inequality was negotiated through taxation. It gives rich insights into the development of citizen-state relationships throughout the course of history. The book comprises case studies from Ancient Athens, Roman Egypt, Medieval Europe, Early Modern Mexico, the Ottoman Empire, Nigeria under British colonial rule, the United Kingdom of the early 20th century, Greece during the Second World War, as well as West Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and the United States in the 20th century, including transnational entanglements in the world of late-modern offshore finance and taxation. The authors are experts in fiscal, economic, financial, legal, social and/or cultural history. The book is intended for students, researchers and scholars of economic and financial history, social and world history and political economy. The Open Access version of this book, available at www.taylorfrancis.com, has been made available under a Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0 license.

The Routledge Companion to the Makers of Global Business

Author : Teresa da Silva Lopes
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1315277794
Total Pages : 782 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (152 download)

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Book Synopsis The Routledge Companion to the Makers of Global Business by : Teresa da Silva Lopes

Download or read book The Routledge Companion to the Makers of Global Business written by Teresa da Silva Lopes and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-07-09 with total page 782 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Routledge Companion to the Makers of Global Business draws together a wide array of state-of-the-art research on multinational enterprises. The volume aims to deepen our historical understanding of how firms and entrepreneurs contributed to transformative processes of globalization. This book explores how global business facilitated the mechanisms of cross-border interactions that affected individuals, organizations, industries, national economies and international relations. The 37 chapters span the Middle Ages to the present day, analyzing the emergence of institutions and actors alongside key contextual factors for global business development. Contributors examine business as a central actor in globalization, covering myriad entrepreneurs, organizational forms and key industrial sectors. Taking a historical view, the chapters highlight the intertwined and evolving nature of economic, political, social, technological and environmental patterns and relationships. They explore dynamic change as well as lasting continuities, both of which often only become visible – and can only be fully understood – when analyzed in the long run. With dedicated chapters on challenges such as political risk, sustainability and economic growth, this prestigious collection provides a one-stop shop for a key business discipline. Chapter 31 of this book is freely available as a downloadable Open Access PDF at http://www.taylorfrancis.com under a Creative Commons Attribution-Non Commercial-No Derivatives (CC-BY-NC-ND) 4.0 license.

Multinational Enterprises and Government Intervention (RLE International Business)

Author : Thomas A Poynter
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1135126399
Total Pages : 142 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (351 download)

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Book Synopsis Multinational Enterprises and Government Intervention (RLE International Business) by : Thomas A Poynter

Download or read book Multinational Enterprises and Government Intervention (RLE International Business) written by Thomas A Poynter and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-01-04 with total page 142 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Government intervention can reduce the profits of multinational enterprises. These interventions also increase uncertainty and risk and distort trading and intra-firm sourcing patterns. The focus of this book is a corporate survival plan that describes how a multinational can monitor its exposure to intervention and then seek to reduce it. It reports on the successes and failures of firms as they implement various global management systems and recommends a general strategy. Such a strategy will allow multinationals to continue foreign investment with the longer term horizons that will benefit both the firms and their host countries.

Varieties of Capitalism Over Time

Author : Niall G. Mackenzie
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000802264
Total Pages : 272 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Varieties of Capitalism Over Time by : Niall G. Mackenzie

Download or read book Varieties of Capitalism Over Time written by Niall G. Mackenzie and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-12-12 with total page 272 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book looks at how varieties of capitalism emerge over time and across different geographies, and is comprised of submissions from scholars around the globe. Covering a wide range of territories including Europe, the Americas, Africa, and Asia across both the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, this edited volume considers the roles that the state and business working together play in the emergence of different economic systems. Whilst most analyses focus on identifying different types of capitalism, the chapters in this volume instead focus on how these different types develop, the drivers of their emergence, and the people and organisations behind the developments. The geographical spread of analyses allows the reader to delve into how different countries have managed and even created their economic systems providing comparative insights into our understanding of how different national economic models develop over time. This book was originally published as a special issue of Business History.

The Multinational Corporation and Social Change

Author : David Ernest Apter
Publisher : New York : Praeger
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 264 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The Multinational Corporation and Social Change by : David Ernest Apter

Download or read book The Multinational Corporation and Social Change written by David Ernest Apter and published by New York : Praeger. This book was released on 1976 with total page 264 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Gendered Capitalism

Author : Paula A. De La Cruz-Fernández
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000384829
Total Pages : 161 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis Gendered Capitalism by : Paula A. De La Cruz-Fernández

Download or read book Gendered Capitalism written by Paula A. De La Cruz-Fernández and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-05-05 with total page 161 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Gendered Capitalism: Sewing Machines and Multinational Business in Spain and Mexico, 1850–1940 is a history of the gendered corporation, a study that examines how ideas and ideals about domesticity and the cultures of sewing and embroidery, being gender-specific, shaped the US-headquartered Singer Sewing Machine Company’s operations around the world. In contrast to production-driven and culture-neutral analyses of the multinational enterprise, this book focuses on both the supply and the demand side to argue that consumers and the cultural worlds of those—mainly women—using the sewing machine for personal purposes or for the market shaped corporate organization. This book is a global history of Singer, but it also focuses on the cases of Spain and Mexico to highlight nations where the sewing machine multinational never established manufacturing operations. Casa Singer was a mostly profitable and a long-term selling and marketing operation in both countries. Gendered Capitalism demonstrates that local Spanish and Mexican agents, both men and women, developed and expanded Singer’s selling system to the extent that the multinational company was seen as domestic, both in the location sense, and because of its focus on the private sphere of the home. By bringing the cases of Spain and Mexico, and the cultural, everyday realm of practices related to sewing and embroidery that the sewing machine was part of, to the center of the study of international business, Gendered Capitalism further reveals the layers of complexities and multitudes that conform the history of global capitalism. This book will be of interest to readers and scholars in the fields of business history, economic cultural history, management studies, international business, women’s history, gender studies, and the history of technology.

Business, Ethics and Institutions

Author : Asli M. Colpan
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 042963210X
Total Pages : 230 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (296 download)

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Book Synopsis Business, Ethics and Institutions by : Asli M. Colpan

Download or read book Business, Ethics and Institutions written by Asli M. Colpan and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-09-18 with total page 230 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is the first systematic scholarly study on the business history of Turkey from the nineteenth century until the present. It aims to place the distinctive characteristics of capitalism in Turkey within a global and comparative perspective, dealing with three related issues. First, it examines the institutional context that shaped the capitalist development in Turkey. Second, it focuses on the corporate actors, entrepreneurs and business enterprises that have led the national economic growth. Third, it explores the ethical foundations and social responsibility of business enterprises in the country. The comparative and historical approach sets the volume apart from previous books on the subject. Business, Ethics and Institutions aims to strengthen scholarly and policy understanding of Turkish capitalism and the diversified business groups which dominate the economy by providing a deep analysis of the evolution of political and social institutions which shaped corporate activity. It demonstrates the key role played by large family-owned business groups in Turkey’s development. It also seeks to identify both the similarities and the differences in the Turkish pattern of economic development, making comparisons with Japan, an early example of catch-up, and a more successful model than Turkey. The comparative perspective makes the book highly relevant to a wide range of scholars interested in the institutional foundations of modern capitalism and will be of value to researchers, academics, and students in the fields of business and economic history, ethics, organizational studies, and entrepreneurship.