Middle Babylonian Texts in the Cornell University Collections: The earlier kings

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (21 download)

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Book Synopsis Middle Babylonian Texts in the Cornell University Collections: The earlier kings by : W. H. van Soldt

Download or read book Middle Babylonian Texts in the Cornell University Collections: The earlier kings written by W. H. van Soldt and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Translation, transliteration, and commentary of cuneiform documents from Babylonia dating to the Kassite period, the middle of the second millennium BCE, in ancient Iraq"--

Middle Babylonian Texts in the Cornell Collections, Part II

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646020839
Total Pages : 481 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Middle Babylonian Texts in the Cornell Collections, Part II by : Elena Devecchi

Download or read book Middle Babylonian Texts in the Cornell Collections, Part II written by Elena Devecchi and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2020-12-11 with total page 481 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume completes the publication of Middle Babylonian texts from the Rosen Collection that date to the Kassite period, a project that was initiated by Wilfred H. van Soldt with CUSAS 30 in 2015. In this book, Elena Devecchi provides full transliterations, translations, and extended commentaries of 338 previously unpublished cuneiform tablets from Kassite Babylonia (ca. 1475–1155 BCE). Most of the texts are dated to the reigns of Nazi-Maruttaš and Kadašman-Turgu, but the collection also includes one tablet dating to the reign of Burna-Buriaš II and a few documents from the reigns of Kadašman-Enlil II, Kudur-Enlil, and Šagarakti-Šuriaš, as well as some that are not dated. The tablets published here are largely administrative records dealing with the income, storage, and redistribution of agricultural products and byproducts, animal husbandry, and textile production, while legal documents and letters comprise a smaller portion of the collection. Evidence suggests that these documents originated from an administrative center that interacted closely with the provincial capital Nippur and must have been located in its vicinity. They thus expand significantly our previous knowledge of the Nippur region under Kassite rule, hitherto almost exclusively based on sources that came from Nippur itself, and provide substantial new data for the study of central aspects of society, economy, and administration that traditionally lie at the core of research about Kassite Babylonia.

Old Babylonian Texts in the Schøyen Collection, Part Two

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646020146
Total Pages : 249 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Old Babylonian Texts in the Schøyen Collection, Part Two by : A. R. George

Download or read book Old Babylonian Texts in the Schøyen Collection, Part Two written by A. R. George and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2019-08-15 with total page 249 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In ancient Mesopotamia, men training to be scribes copied model letters in order to practice writing and familiarize themselves with epistolary forms and expressions. Similarly, model contracts were used to teach them how to draw up agreements for the transactions typical of everyday economic life. This volume makes available a trove of previously unknown tablets and fragments, now housed in the Shøyen Collection, that were produced in the training of scribes in Old Babylonian schools. Following on Old Babylonian Texts in the Schøyen Collection, Part One: Selected Letters, this volume publishes the contents of sixty-five tablets bearing Akkadian letters used to train scribes and twenty-six prisms and tablets carrying Sumerian legal texts copied in the same context. Each text is presented in transliterated form and in translation, with appropriate commentary and annotations and, at the end of the book, photographs of the cuneiform. The material is made easily navigable by a catalogue, bibliography, and indexes. This collection of previously unknown documents expands the extant corpus of educational texts, making an essential contribution to the study of the ancient world.

Sumerian Literary Texts in the Schøyen Collection

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646020111
Total Pages : 169 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Sumerian Literary Texts in the Schøyen Collection by : Christopher Metcalf

Download or read book Sumerian Literary Texts in the Schøyen Collection written by Christopher Metcalf and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2019-08-15 with total page 169 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first in a series of volumes publishing the Sumerian literary texts in the Schøyen Collection, this book makes available, for the first time, editions of seventeen cuneiform tablets, dating to ca. 2000 BCE and containing works of Sumerian religious poetry. Edited, translated, and annotated by Christopher Metcalf, these poems shed light on the interaction between cult, scholarship, and scribal culture in Mesopotamia in the early second millennium BCE. The present volume contains fourteen songs composed in praise of the various gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon; it is believed that these songs were typically performed in temple cults. Among them are a song in praise of Sud, goddess of the ancient Mesopotamian city Shuruppak; a song describing the statue of the protective goddess Lamma-saga in the “Sacred City” temple complex at Girsu; and a previously unknown hymn dedicated to the creator god Enki. Each text is provided in transliteration and translation and accompanied by hand-copies and images of the tablets themselves. Expertly contextualizing each song in Babylonian religious and literary history, this thoroughly competent editio princeps will prove a valuable tool for scholars interested in the literary and religious traditions of ancient Mesopotamia.

Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties

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Publisher : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 1501510231
Total Pages : 345 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties by : Susanne Paulus

Download or read book Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties written by Susanne Paulus and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2020-09-21 with total page 345 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Babylonia in the second half of the 2nd millennium BCE is one of the most understudied periods of Mesopotamian history. In the last few years, discoveries of new texts and archaeological materials from the Sealand Dynasty have emerged, which expand the possibilities to fill this gap in our knowledge of Mesopotamian history. At the same time, scholars have started to revive Kassite studies using new materials, methods, and questions. While those works are groundbreaking contributions to the field, many questions about the history and chronology, archaeology, economy, language of Babylonia during this period are still unsolved. This volume brings together eleven contributions by leading scholars in the Sealand and Kassite period, approaching those questions from an archaeological, ethnological, historical, linguistic, and economical point of view. The book opens with an introduction into the history and research on Babylonia under the Sealand Dynasty and the Kassites.

Elementary Education in Early Second Millennium BCE Babylonia

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646021800
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Elementary Education in Early Second Millennium BCE Babylonia by : Alhena Gadotti

Download or read book Elementary Education in Early Second Millennium BCE Babylonia written by Alhena Gadotti and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2021-09-02 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this volume, Alhena Gadotti and Alexandra Kleinerman investigate how Akkadian speakers learned Sumerian during the Old Babylonian period in areas outside major cities. Despite the fact that it was a dead language at the time, Sumerian was considered a crucial part of scribal training due to its cultural importance. This book provides transliterations and translations of 715 cuneiform scribal school exercise texts from the Jonathan and Jeanette Rosen Ancient Near Eastern Studies Collection at Cornell University. These tablets, consisting mainly of lexical texts, illustrate the process of elementary foreign-language training at scribal schools during the Old Babylonian period. Although the tablets are all without provenance, discrepancies between these texts and those from other sites, such as Nippur and Ur, strongly suggest that the texts published here do not come from a previously studied location. Comparing these tablets with previously published documents, Gadotti and Kleinerman argue that elementary education in Mesopotamia was relatively standardized and that knowledge of cuneiform writing was more widespread than previously assumed. By refining our understanding of education in southern Mesopotamia, this volume elucidates more fully the pedagogical underpinnings of the world’s first curriculum devised to teach a dead language. As a text edition, it will make these important documents accessible to Assyriologists and Sumerologists for future study.

The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume III

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Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190687606
Total Pages : 1001 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

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Book Synopsis The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume III by : Karen Radner

Download or read book The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East: Volume III written by Karen Radner and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2022-04-21 with total page 1001 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "The Oxford History of the Ancient Near East offers a comprehensive and fully illustrated survey of the history of Egypt and Western Asia (Levant, Anatolia, Mesopotamia and Iran) in five volumes, from the emergence of complex states to the conquest of Alexander of Great. The authors represent a highly international mix of leading academics whose expertise brings alive the people, places and times of the remote past. The emphasis lies firmly on the political and social histories of the states and communities under investigation. The individual chapters present the key textual and material sources underpinning the historical reconstruction, giving special attention to the most recent archaeological finds and how they have impacted our interpretation. The first volume covers the long period from the mid-tenth millennium to the late third millennium BC and presents the history of the Near East in ten chapters "From the Beginnings to Old Kingdom Egypt and the Dynasty of Akkad". Key topics include the domestication of animals and plants, the first permanent settlements, the subjugation and appropriation of the natural environment, the emergence of complex states and belief systems, the invention of the earliest writing systems and the wide-ranging trade networks that linked diverse population groups across deserts, mountains and oceans"--

Ur III Texts in the Schøyen Collection

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646020774
Total Pages : 429 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Ur III Texts in the Schøyen Collection by : Jacob L. Dahl

Download or read book Ur III Texts in the Schøyen Collection written by Jacob L. Dahl and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2020-12-11 with total page 429 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Judging from the sheer amount of textual material left to us, the rulers of ancient Ur were above all else concerned with keeping track of their poorest subjects, who made up the majority of the population under their jurisdiction. Year after year, administrators recorded, in frightening detail, the whereabouts of the poorest individuals in monthly and yearly rosters, assigning tiny parcels of land to countless prebend holders and starvation rations to even more numerous estate slaves. The texts published in this volume—dating from the time of the Third Dynasty of Ur (ca. 2100–2000 BC)—attest to the immense investment of the ancient rulers in managing their subjects. This volume presents editions of two hundred and twenty-four cuneiform tablets selected from the Schøyen Collection, the vast majority of which have not been previously published. The ancient provenience for these texts is primarily Umma, with other core provinces represented in smaller numbers, such as notable contributions from ancient Adab, which is underrepresented in the published record. In order to provide a fuller picture of the administration of the Ur III state, a number of texts from other collections, both published and unpublished, have been integrated into this volume. Accompanied by Jacob L. Dahl’s precise translations, extensive commentary, and exhaustive indexes, this volume presents extensive new data on prosopography, economy, accounting procedures, letters, contracts, technical terminology, and agriculture that adds significantly to our knowledge of society and the economy during the Third Dynasty of Ur. An important contribution to the study of the Ur III period, in particular for Assyriology, this volume will serve as a useful handbook for scholars and students alike.

Tablets from the Iri-saĝrig Archive

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646021436
Total Pages : 329 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Tablets from the Iri-saĝrig Archive by : Marcel Sigrist

Download or read book Tablets from the Iri-saĝrig Archive written by Marcel Sigrist and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2021-06-21 with total page 329 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While each of the previously known archives from the Third Dynasty of Ur has provided distinct views of Sumerian society, those from Iri-Saĝrig present an extraordinary range of new sources, depicting a cosmopolitan Sumerian/Akkadian city unlike any other from this period. In this publication, Marcel Sigrist and Tohru Ozaki present more than two thousand newly identified tablets, mostly from Iri-Saĝrig. This unique and extensive corpus elucidates the importance that Iri-Saĝrig represented politically, militarily, and culturally in Sumer. Although these tablets were not able to be cleaned, baked, or photographed, the authors’ transliterations are based on the original tablets, often after repeated collations. Moreover, access to so many well-preserved tablets made it possible to improve upon the readings and interpretations offered in previous publications. Volume 1 contains a catalog and classification of the texts by provenance, a list of month names and year formulas, another of inscriptions, a chronological listing of the texts, and extensive indexes of personal names, deities, toponyms, and selected words and phrases. Volume 2 presents the texts in transliteration with substantial commentary. This two-volume publication preserves and makes available to the scholarly community a significant segment of Iraq’s cultural legacy that otherwise might have been ignored or even lost. It will augment and enhance our understanding of the unique civilization of Mesopotamia in the late third millennium BCE.

Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture, Volume 19 (2016)

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Publisher : The Interpreter Foundation
ISBN 13 : 1534649220
Total Pages : 420 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (346 download)

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Book Synopsis Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture, Volume 19 (2016) by : Daniel C. Peterson

Download or read book Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture, Volume 19 (2016) written by Daniel C. Peterson and published by The Interpreter Foundation. This book was released on 2016-06-25 with total page 420 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is volume 19 of Interpreter: A Journal of Mormon Scripture published by The Interpreter Foundation. It contains articles on a variety of topics including: "On Being a Tool," "Joseph Smith, the Book of Mormon, and the American Renaissance: An Update," "Science and Mormonism," "Latter-day Saint Youths’ Construction of Sacred Texts," "Telling the Story of the Coming Forth of the Book of Mormon," "'My People Are Willing': The Mention of Aminadab in the Narrative Context of Helaman 5-6," "'See That Ye Are Not Lifted Up': The Name Zoram and Its Paronomastic Pejoration," "Why Did You Choose Me?", "Nice Try, But No Cigar: A Response to Three Patheos Posts on Nahom (1 Nephi 16:34)," "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dream Map: Part 1 of 2," "Mormonism at Oxford and What It Signifies," "Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dream Map: Part 2 of 2," "Mormonism and the Scientific Persistence of Circles: Aristotle, Spacetime, and One Eternal Round," "Alma — Young Man, Hidden Prophet," "'From the Sea East Even to the Sea West': Thoughts on a Proposed Book of Mormon Chiasm Describing Geography in Alma 22:27," "Shulem, One of the King’s Principal Waiters," and "Conversations with Mormon Historians."

The First Dynasty of the Sealand in Mesopotamia

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Publisher : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 1501507826
Total Pages : 307 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis The First Dynasty of the Sealand in Mesopotamia by : Odette Boivin

Download or read book The First Dynasty of the Sealand in Mesopotamia written by Odette Boivin and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2018-03-19 with total page 307 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Sealand kingdom arose from the rebellion against Babylonian hegemony in the latter half of the 18th century BCE., forcing it to share power over Sumer and Akkad. Although its kings maintained themselves throughout the turmoil leading to the demise of the Amorite dynasty at Babylon, it remains one of the most poorly documented Mesopotamian polities. Until recently, it was known to us mainly through its inclusion into later king lists and chronicles, but the recent publication of well over 400 archival texts from a Sealand palace, soon followed by literary and divinatory tablets, finally makes it possible to study this polity from primary sources. This book proposes a history of the Sealand kingdom based on the new evidence and a reevaluation of previously known sources. The aspects examined are: the economy — mainly the palatial administration and transformation of agricultural and animal resources; the panthea and the palace-sponsored cult, which show that Sealand I kings may have positioned their rule in a Larsean tradition; the political history, including a discussion of the geography and the relative chronology; the recording and transmission of knowledge on the Sealand I dynasty in Mesopotamian historiography.

History of the Akkadian Language (2 vols)

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Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004445218
Total Pages : 1677 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (44 download)

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Book Synopsis History of the Akkadian Language (2 vols) by : Juan-Pablo Vita

Download or read book History of the Akkadian Language (2 vols) written by Juan-Pablo Vita and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2021-08-09 with total page 1677 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: History of the Akkadian Language offers a detailed chronological survey of the oldest known Semitic language and one of history’s longest written records. The outcome is presented in 26 chapters written by 25 leading authors.

Debt and Indebtedness at Emar

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Publisher : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 1501515306
Total Pages : 652 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Debt and Indebtedness at Emar by : Maurizio Viano

Download or read book Debt and Indebtedness at Emar written by Maurizio Viano and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2023-06-19 with total page 652 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is the first comprehensive study of debts and credit system at Emar. It focuses on the socio-economic aspects of credit access and indebtedness as well as on the motivations behind debts and debt settlement in the city of Emar. The credit system is analyzed through several factors: the purpose of debts, i.e., productive or consumptive; the procedures for granting loans; the strategies put in place to meet an obligation and to cope with economic difficulties; the consequences of non-fulfillment, which may lead to servitude or slavery; the different types of slavery; slave prices; the mechanisms of enslavement; and termination of slavery. Moneylending practices and the formation of servile conditions at Emar are studied in the context of the Syrian economy aiming to understand whether the Emar evidence conforms with a socio political and economic crisis that is generally acknowledged to have struck Syria, Anatolia and Northern Mesopotamia at the end of the Late Bronze Age. This work is of sure relevance for scholars interested in socio-economic history, not only of the pertinent historical-geographical area.

Sumerian Literary Texts in the Schøyen Collection

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Author :
Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 164602009X
Total Pages : 413 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Sumerian Literary Texts in the Schøyen Collection by : Christopher Metcalf

Download or read book Sumerian Literary Texts in the Schøyen Collection written by Christopher Metcalf and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2019-08-15 with total page 413 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first in a series of volumes publishing the Sumerian literary texts in the Schøyen Collection, this book makes available, for the first time, editions of seventeen cuneiform tablets, dating to ca. 2000 BCE and containing works of Sumerian religious poetry. Edited, translated, and annotated by Christopher Metcalf, these poems shed light on the interaction between cult, scholarship, and scribal culture in Mesopotamia in the early second millennium BCE. The present volume contains fourteen songs composed in praise of the various gods of the Mesopotamian pantheon; it is believed that these songs were typically performed in temple cults. Among them are a song in praise of Sud, goddess of the ancient Mesopotamian city Shuruppak; a song describing the statue of the protective goddess Lamma-saga in the “Sacred City” temple complex at Girsu; and a previously unknown hymn dedicated to the creator god Enki. Each text is provided in transliteration and translation and accompanied by hand-copies and images of the tablets themselves. Expertly contextualizing each song in Babylonian religious and literary history, this thoroughly competent editio princeps will prove a valuable tool for scholars interested in the literary and religious traditions of ancient Mesopotamia.

Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2

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Publisher : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 1501504185
Total Pages : 268 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2 by : Alexa Bartelmus

Download or read book Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2 written by Alexa Bartelmus and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2017-06-26 with total page 268 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Karduniaš, as the kingdom of the Kassites in Babylonia was called in ancient times, was the neighbor and rival of great powers such as Egypt, the Hittites, and Assyria. But while our knowledge of the latter kingdoms has made huge progress in the last decades, the Kassites have until recently been largely ignored by modern scholarship. Recently a number of scholars have embarked on research into different aspects of Late Bronze Age Babylonia. The desire to share the results of these new investigations resulted in an international conference, which was held at Munich University in July 2011. The presentations given at this meeting have been revised for publication in the current volume. This book gives an overview of current research on the Kassites and is the first larger survey of their culture ever. An invaluable introduction by Kassite expert Professor John A. Brinkman is followed by seventeen specialist contributions investigating different aspects of the Kassites. These include detailed historical, social, cultural, archaeological, and art historical studies concerning the Kassites from their first arrival in Mesopotamia, during the period when a Kassite Dynasty ruled Babylonia (c. 1500-1550 BC), and in the subsequent aftermath. Concentrating on southern Mesopotamia the contributions also discuss Kassite relations and presence in neighboring regions. The book is completed by a substantial bibliography and a detailed index.

Camels in the Biblical World

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Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 1646021703
Total Pages : 433 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Camels in the Biblical World by : Martin Heide

Download or read book Camels in the Biblical World written by Martin Heide and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2021-07-20 with total page 433 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Camels are first mentioned in the Bible as the movable property of Abraham. During the early monarchy, they feature prominently as long-distance mounts for the Queen of Sheba, and almost a millennium later, the Gospels tell us about the impossibility of a camel passing through a needle’s eye. Given the limited extrabiblical evidence for camels before circa 1000 BCE, a thorough investigation of the spatio-temporal history of the camel in the ancient Near and Middle East is necessary to understand their early appearance in the Hebrew Bible. Camels in the Biblical World is a two-part study that charts the cultural trajectories of two domestic species—the two-humped or Bactrian camel (Camelus bactrianus) and the one-humped or Arabian camel (Camelus dromedarius)—from the fourth through first millennium BCE and up to the first century CE. Drawing on archaeological camel remains, iconography, inscriptions, and other text sources, the first part reappraises the published data on the species’ domestication and early exploitation in their respective regions of origin. The second part takes a critical look at the various references to camels in the Hebrew Bible and the Gospels, providing a detailed philological analysis of each text and referring to archaeological data and zoological observations whenever appropriate. A state-of-the-art evaluation of the cultural history of the camel and its role in the biblical world, this volume brings the humanities into dialogue with the natural sciences. The novel insights here serve scholars in disciplines as diverse as biblical studies, (zoo)archaeology, history, and philology.

Textiles and Gender in Antiquity

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Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 135014150X
Total Pages : 328 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (51 download)

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Book Synopsis Textiles and Gender in Antiquity by : Mary Harlow

Download or read book Textiles and Gender in Antiquity written by Mary Harlow and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2020-11-12 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume looks at how the issues of textiles and gender intertwine across three millennia in antiquity and examines continuities and differences across time and space – with surprising resonances for the modern world. The interplay of gender, identity, textile production and use is notable on many levels, from the question of who was involved in the transformation of raw materials into fabric at one end, to the wearing of garments and the construction of identity at the other. Textile production has often been considered to follow a linear trajectory from a domestic (female) activity to a more 'commercial' or 'industrial' (male-centred) mode of production. In reality, many modes of production co-existed and the making of textiles is not so easily grafted onto the labour of one sex or the other. Similarly, textiles once transformed into garments are often of 'unisex' shape but worn to express the gender of the wearer. As shown by the detailed textual source material and the rich illustrations in this volume, dress and gender are intimately linked in the visual and written records of antiquity. The contributors show how it is common practice in both art and literature not only to use particular garments to characterize one sex or the other, but also to undermine characterizations by suggesting that they display features usually associated with the opposite gender.