International Financial Reporting Standards (Ifrs) 2014

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 3527507930
Total Pages : 1320 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (275 download)

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Book Synopsis International Financial Reporting Standards (Ifrs) 2014 by :

Download or read book International Financial Reporting Standards (Ifrs) 2014 written by and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2014 with total page 1320 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This compact book contains all the official International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS), International Accounting Standards (IAS) and Interpretations (SICs, IFRICs), approved by the EU and thus mandatory for companies operating in capital markets. The standards are listed synoptically in English and German, allowing a comparison with the English original, which is important in questions of interpretation. A handy reference for accountants, tax advisors, IFRS consultants, and companies applying IFRS. Can only be sold within the EU.

Kennzahlen IFRS-Abschluss

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 352750642X
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (275 download)

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Book Synopsis Kennzahlen IFRS-Abschluss by : Inge Wulf

Download or read book Kennzahlen IFRS-Abschluss written by Inge Wulf and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2013-03-25 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: IFRS-Kennzahlen im praktischen Pocketformat in Deutsch und Englisch. Das Business Fachbuch "Kennzahlen IFRS-Abschluss" beinhaltet, jeweils in Deutsch und Englisch, zu jeder IFRS-Kennzahl: - die Formel - Erläuterung der Aussagekraft der Kennzahl - Vor- und Nachteile der Anwendung der Kennzahl - Rechenbeispiele - Zusammenhang zu anderen Kennzahlen - Bedeutungsvergleich HGB/IFRSInklusive Stichwortverzeichnis mit allen IFRS-Kennzahlen in Deutsch und Englisch.

Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781911040903
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (49 download)

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Book Synopsis Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting by : International Accounting Standards Board

Download or read book Conceptual Framework for Financial Reporting written by International Accounting Standards Board and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Financial Reporting under IFRS

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470971622
Total Pages : 358 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (79 download)

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Book Synopsis Financial Reporting under IFRS by : Wolfgang Dick

Download or read book Financial Reporting under IFRS written by Wolfgang Dick and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-02-25 with total page 358 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The International Financial Reporting Standards are quite different from other sets of accounting standards, and are fundamentally different from US-GAAP, in that they are based on principles, and not on detailed rules. Financial Reporting under IFRS:A topic-based approach offers a global perspective on IFRS by presenting the prescribed rationale and principles and illustrating them through numerous examples from large international companies. It aims to develop the fundamental skills necessary to read and use the information contained in all types of financial statements, through examples, activities, questions and answers. The book is broadly divided into three sections. Section one examines the structure of the Balance Sheet and the Income Statement, their links and the accounting mechanisms used to prepare them. Section two deals with the identification, evaluation and reporting of Balance Sheet items. Section three covers the use of financial statements to analyze a firm’s performance and its risks. Throughout the book special topics are covered, including Derivatives and Hedge accounting (IAS 39), Business Combination (IFRS 3) and Operating Segments (IFRS 8). Financial Reporting under IFRS is ideally suited to the needs of students of accounting and financial reporting, but all users of financial statements, from creditors and investors to suppliers, customers, employees and governments will benefit from its concise, topic-based approach.

The Handbook to IFRS Transition and to IFRS U.S. GAAP Dual Reporting

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119960347
Total Pages : 847 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (199 download)

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Book Synopsis The Handbook to IFRS Transition and to IFRS U.S. GAAP Dual Reporting by : Francesco Bellandi

Download or read book The Handbook to IFRS Transition and to IFRS U.S. GAAP Dual Reporting written by Francesco Bellandi and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2012-05-03 with total page 847 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An indispensable guide to making the transition to dual IFRS/GAAP financial reporting U.S. financial reporting will undergo an unprecedented level of change within the next several years. U.S. companies face a convergence between U.S. GAAP and IFRS, affecting several major accounting standards—most notably in the areas of leasing, revenue recognition, and financial instruments. It is imperative that U.S. companies understand these major changes and their business and operational implications. The IFRS U.S. GAAP Dual Reporting Handbook to First-Time Adoption offers a comprehensive treatment of both the principles and techniques of dual reporting under IFRS/U.S. GAAP, while exploring the practical implications for accounting professionals of reporting under both sets of standards. Takes an operating approach to the implementation and application of the dual standards Draws upon the author's extensive firsthand experience to dispel uncertainty and offer decision makers expert technical assistance Defines systemic changes businesses will need to make to accommodate IFRS standards Compares the two bodies of standards item-by-item and identifies solutions under one set of standards to issues arising under the other Explores the strategic impact of structuring a company for IFRS transition In addition to covering the full range of critical issues surrounding adopting IFRS, this indispensable handbook is a rich resource of dual reporting tools, including financial statement formats, charts of accounts, accounting check-lists, reconciliation schedules, and operating manuals.

Preface to International Financial Reporting Standards

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781904230021
Total Pages : 10 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis Preface to International Financial Reporting Standards by : International Accounting Standards Board

Download or read book Preface to International Financial Reporting Standards written by International Accounting Standards Board and published by . This book was released on 2002 with total page 10 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Automotive Management

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Author :
Publisher : Walter de Gruyter
ISBN 13 : 3486736167
Total Pages : 265 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (867 download)

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Book Synopsis Automotive Management by : Jens Diehlmann

Download or read book Automotive Management written by Jens Diehlmann and published by Walter de Gruyter. This book was released on 2013-12-09 with total page 265 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The authors point out the entire business orientated automotive value chain. With regard to the finance perspective the elements of the value chain are scrutinized chapter by chapter. Current trends in new mobility concepts, cross-industry strategic alliances as well as requirements for product launch, especially in the BRIC countries, are highlighted. The book provides the link between science and business practice in the automotive industry. It can be used as a textbook. Many practitioners might also use it as a guideline in the field of automotive management.

IFRS: Kapitalflussrechnung

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Author :
Publisher : Erich Schmidt Verlag GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 9783503103904
Total Pages : 140 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (39 download)

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Book Synopsis IFRS: Kapitalflussrechnung by : Andreas Eiselt

Download or read book IFRS: Kapitalflussrechnung written by Andreas Eiselt and published by Erich Schmidt Verlag GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2008 with total page 140 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

IFRS for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3834997544
Total Pages : 220 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (349 download)

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Book Synopsis IFRS for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises by : Richard Wittsiepe

Download or read book IFRS for Small and Medium-Sized Enterprises written by Richard Wittsiepe and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2008-08-07 with total page 220 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Richard Wittsiepe analyses the relevant IFRS statements with a view to possibly integrating them into existing workflows in an annual audit. He weighs the key issues of conversion by comparing them with the 4th EU Directive for accounting within the EU. The aim is to visualise the workflows as the basis for creating support software which can make a key contribution to cost-effective conversion.

Intermediate Accounting IFRS

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119607515
Total Pages : 1410 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (196 download)

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Book Synopsis Intermediate Accounting IFRS by : Donald E. Kieso

Download or read book Intermediate Accounting IFRS written by Donald E. Kieso and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2020-07-08 with total page 1410 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Essential knowledge of International Financial Reporting Standards for students of global accounting This important work provides the tools global accounting students need to understand international financial reporting standards (IFRS) and how they are applied in practice. This text emphasizes fair value, proper accounting for financial instruments, and new developments in international accounting. By presenting IFRS in light of current accounting practice, this book helps students gain practical knowledge of the topic that they can apply as they advance into their global accounting careers. With this revised and updated Fourth Edition, students will develop a firm conceptual understanding of IFRS, as well as the ability to integrate their learning through practical exercises. Throughout this text, Global Accounting Insights highlight the important differences that remain between IFRS and U.S. GAAP, discussing the ongoing joint convergence efforts to resolve them. Comprehensive, up-to-date, and accurate, Intermediate Accounting IFRS includes proven pedagogical tools designed to help students learn more effectively. Comprehensively covers the latest International Financial Reporting Standards and how they are applied in practice Takes a comparative approach to help students understand the differences between IFRS, U.S. GAAP, and other important standards Emphasizes practical application of knowledge with end-of-chapter Review and Practice sections Provides authoritative references and citations to ensure content reliability and provide opportunities for further study Includes access to video walkthroughs, interactive content, and digital resources to support student engagement and ensure positive learning outcomes As IFRS gains broad acceptance around the world, students of global accounting will need to be intimately familiar with these standards, and prepared to keep up with the rapid changes in the international environment. Intermediate Accounting IFRS answers to these pressing needs, making it the clear choice for accounting courses at the intermediate level.

Nutzen der Kapitalflussrechnung als Informationsinstrument eines IFRS-Abschlusses und für die Abschlussanalyse

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Author :
Publisher : diplom.de
ISBN 13 : 3836647478
Total Pages : 86 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (366 download)

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Book Synopsis Nutzen der Kapitalflussrechnung als Informationsinstrument eines IFRS-Abschlusses und für die Abschlussanalyse by : Christian Horwath

Download or read book Nutzen der Kapitalflussrechnung als Informationsinstrument eines IFRS-Abschlusses und für die Abschlussanalyse written by Christian Horwath and published by diplom.de. This book was released on 2010-06-07 with total page 86 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Inhaltsangabe:Einleitung: Die Kapitalflussrechnung zählt in der IFRS-Rechnungslegung zu den Pflichtbestandteilen des Jahresabschlusses. Sie bezeichnet eine Form der retrospektiven Finanzierungsrechnung, die als Rechenschaftsinstrument nach internationalen Rechnungslegungsnormen erstellt wird und gemeinsam mit Bilanz und Gewinn und Verlustrechnung veröffentlicht wird. Sie steht ebenso wie die anderen Bestandteile als Informationsinstrument in einem Spannungsverhältnis zwischen der Gestaltung durch das bilanzierende Unternehmen und den vom externen Empfänger gewünschten Botschaften, der aufgrund dieser Informationen Entscheidungen zu treffen hat. Der Adressat eines IFRS-Abschlusses wird mit einem Informationsinstrument konfrontiert, mit dessen Hilfe er einen eingehenden Einblick in die Finanzlage des Unternehmens zu erhalten erhofft. Vor diesem Hintergrund erfolgt in einem ersten Teil eine Auseinandersetzung mit dem Begriff und der Bedeutung der Finanzlage eines Unternehmens und mit der Darstellung der Finanzlage im IFRS-Abschluss. Im Anschluss daran wird das Instrumentarium der Kapitalflussrechnung in seinen Grundzügen dargestellt. Mit den Regelungen für die Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS wird auf das erste der beiden Hauptkapitel, der Auseinandersetzung mit dem Nutzen der Kapitalflussrechnung als Informationsinstrument, übergeleitet. Hierbei werden Besonderheiten im Zusammenhang mit Kapitalflussrechnungen bei Finanzinstituten und Konzernen bewusst aus der Betrachtung ausgeklammert. Diese Themen werden lediglich an einigen Stellen gestreift. Es erscheint wichtig, sich mit der Kapitalflussrechnung in ihren Grundzügen auseinander zu setzen, zumal die Grundstrukturen der Kapitalflussrechnung auch für Finanzinstitute und für den Konzernabschluss erhalten bleiben. Mit Aufnahme der umfangreichen Details zu diesen Themen würde der Rahmen dieser Arbeit bald erschöpft sein. Vor dem Hintergrund der IFRS-Rechnungslegungsgrundsätze, die für alle Bestandteile eines IFRS-Abschlusses so auch für die Kapitalflussrechnung gelten, und weiterer Anforderungen an die Kapitalflussrechnung wird das Informationsinstrument anhand einiger spezifische Sachverhalte auf ihre Tauglichkeit zur Informationsvermittlung untersucht. Als diskussionswürdig kristallisieren sich das Wahlrecht des Bilanzierenden bei der Darstellungsmethode des Cashflows aus betrieblicher Tätigkeit und die Wahlrechte bei der Zuordnung von Zahlungen im Zusammenhang mit Zinsen und Dividenden [...]

IFRS, Fair Value and Corporate Governance

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Author :
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0080461662
Total Pages : 497 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (84 download)

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Book Synopsis IFRS, Fair Value and Corporate Governance by : Dimitris N. Chorafas

Download or read book IFRS, Fair Value and Corporate Governance written by Dimitris N. Chorafas and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2006-04-03 with total page 497 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Written for managers and professionals in business and industry, this book helps the reader in: * Understanding what is and is not IFRS * Learning the complexities of IFRS implementation* Appreciating the contribution of IFRS to corporate governance The changeover from the mosaic of different heterogeneous national accounting standards to the International Financial Reporting Standards has not been easy. For many companies IFRS, and most particularly the concept of fair value in IAS 39, has amounted to a phase shift – which is prerequisite to achieving compliant financial reporting. The research conducted by Dr. Chorafas for this book, documented that the process of meeting IFRS requirements presents opportunities and challenges to all enterprises. As many companies have found out, abandoning the classical accruals accounting for marking-to-market their transactions and portfolio positions, has not been easy. The conversion process has affected several functions within the organization including balance sheets, P&L statements, auditing, risk control, information systems, and management accounting. This book is in made up of four parts: * Part One focuses on business competition, standards boards, corporate accounting, and IAS 39 * The theme of Part Two, is the implementation of IFRS, exemplified through case studies on task forces and practical applications * Part Three brings together IFRS and management accounting requirements, with emphasis on fair value. * Part Four addresses itself to the contribution IFRS can make to better corporate governance, and to rebuilding the balance sheet The book has many case studies based on actual experiences. These range from the implementation of IFRS directives such as hedge accounting, to developing practices of real-time balance sheets; the help provided by sophisticated accounting solutions help in stress testing; and a comprehensive definition of the role of the audit committee.* A clear and practical view of the complexities of IFRS implementation* Includes practical case studies from real-life companies going through the process* Pays particular attention to IAS 39 on Fair Value

The Accounting of Deferred Taxes Under IFRS

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Author :
Publisher : GRIN Verlag
ISBN 13 : 3640511301
Total Pages : 33 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (45 download)

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Book Synopsis The Accounting of Deferred Taxes Under IFRS by : Michael Mehnert

Download or read book The Accounting of Deferred Taxes Under IFRS written by Michael Mehnert and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2010 with total page 33 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Seminar paper from the year 2009 in the subject Business economics - Accounting and Taxes, grade: 1,7, AKAD University of Applied Sciences Stuttgart, course: IFRS, language: English, abstract: 1 Introduction In a global economy there is a need for common accounting rules. It is simply important for an enterprise to know that national and international stock exchange rules require the application of internationally accepted accounting directives. So there are several good reasons for a trend towards internationalization. For an investor means internationaliza-tion usually accompanied by a standardization of accounting rules that he can compare financial statements quicker and easier. There are no longer time- consuming and ex-pensive conversions of financial statements necessary. Internalization means also that the national differences in the determination of profit will disappear. Standardization would give the term "profit" substance and would allow the comparison of financial statements of different enterprises from several countries. In the European Union enterprises have a special responsibility since 2005. On the 12th of March 2002 the European Parliament endorsed the EC Commission's proposal that all EU listed companies must follow standards issued by the International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) in their consolidated financial statements starting no later than 2005. In this assignment I want to give a short overview about what the main principles of the International Financial Accounting Principles (IFRS) are all about and what differences to the German Statutory Accounting Rules (HGB) can be distinguished (chapter 2). Then I want to focus on the accounting of deferred taxes under IFRS (chapter 3). After a definition of deferral I want to explain the concepts and methods of deferral in this part. Finally I will have a closer look on deferred tax assets and deferred tax liabilities.

IFRS 1 - First time Adoption of IFRS

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Author :
Publisher : GRIN Verlag
ISBN 13 : 363866631X
Total Pages : 72 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (386 download)

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Book Synopsis IFRS 1 - First time Adoption of IFRS by : Daniel Saak

Download or read book IFRS 1 - First time Adoption of IFRS written by Daniel Saak and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2007 with total page 72 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Studienarbeit aus dem Jahr 2005 im Fachbereich BWL - Rechnungswesen, Bilanzierung, Steuern, Note: 1,7, Universität Bielefeld, Veranstaltung: Seminar zur Konzernrechnungslegung, Sprache: Deutsch, Abstract: Am 19. Juni 2003 hat das International Accounting Standards Board (IASB) den International Financial Reporting Standard 1 (IFRS 1): First time Adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards veröffentlicht. Dieser Standard hat das Ziel Unternehmen mit ihren jeweiligen nationalen Rechnungslegungsvorschriften die erstmalige Anwendung sowie den Einstieg in die internationale IFRS - Rechnungslegung zu erleichtern und gleichzeitig den Bilanzadressaten qualitativ hochwertige Informationen bereitzustellen. Aufgrund der Verordnung der Europäischen Union sind alle kapitalmarktorientierten Unternehmen ab dem 01.01.2005 verpflichtet ihre Konzernabschlüsse nach der IFRS - Rechnungslegung zu erstellen. Bisher war die Regelung, um einen erstmaligen Konzernabschluss nach den International Accounting Standards (IAS) zu erstellen, in den Standing Interpretations Committee kurz SIC-8 enthalten. Einige Regelungen des SIC-8 sind im IFRS 1 übernommen worden, wie z.B. der Grundsatz der retrospektiven Anwendung sowie die Regelung, dass beim Übergang auf IAS entstehende Differenzen mit den Gewinnrücklagen in der Eröffnungsbilanz verrechnet werden. Regelungen des SIC-8 ließen jedoch auch eine Vielzahl von Interpretationsspielräumen zu, z.B. ist ein Abweichen von der grundsätzlich retrospektiven Anwendung möglich, wenn der Anpassungsbetrag aus früheren Perioden nicht mit einem vertretbaren Aufwand bestimmt werden kann. Mit den neuen Vorschriften des IFRS 1 soll sichergestellt werden, dass ein erstmaliger Abschluss folgende Ziele gewährleistet: 1. Die Abschlussadressaten sollen transparente und hochwertige über alle offen gelegten Perioden vergleichbare Informationen erhalten sowie die 2. Lieferung eines angemessenen Startpunktes der Rechnungslegung auf der Grundlage der IFRS und

Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS

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Author :
Publisher : Vahlen
ISBN 13 : 9783800631599
Total Pages : 238 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (315 download)

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Book Synopsis Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS by : Michael Sonnabend

Download or read book Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS written by Michael Sonnabend and published by Vahlen. This book was released on 2008 with total page 238 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS und DRS 21

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Author :
Publisher : Erich Schmidt Verlag GmbH & Co. KG
ISBN 13 : 9783503157426
Total Pages : 178 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (574 download)

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Book Synopsis Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS und DRS 21 by : Andreas Eiselt

Download or read book Kapitalflussrechnung nach IFRS und DRS 21 written by Andreas Eiselt and published by Erich Schmidt Verlag GmbH & Co. KG. This book was released on 2014 with total page 178 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Die Kapitalflussrechnung. Ein Vergleich zwischen den Regelungen nach IFRS und den Vorschriften des HGB

Download Die Kapitalflussrechnung. Ein Vergleich zwischen den Regelungen nach IFRS und den Vorschriften des HGB PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : GRIN Verlag
ISBN 13 : 3638354385
Total Pages : 29 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (383 download)

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Book Synopsis Die Kapitalflussrechnung. Ein Vergleich zwischen den Regelungen nach IFRS und den Vorschriften des HGB by : Barbara Eden

Download or read book Die Kapitalflussrechnung. Ein Vergleich zwischen den Regelungen nach IFRS und den Vorschriften des HGB written by Barbara Eden and published by GRIN Verlag. This book was released on 2005-03-02 with total page 29 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Studienarbeit aus dem Jahr 2004 im Fachbereich BWL - Rechnungswesen, Bilanzierung, Steuern, Note: 1,5, Hamburger Universität für Wirtschaft und Politik (ehem. Hochschule für Wirtschaft und Politik), Sprache: Deutsch, Abstract: Die Wahlrechte der EU-Verordnung zur IAS-Anwendung und ihre Umsetzungsmöglichkeiten in Deutschland stellen ein aktuelles Thema dar, das Fachkreise und Interessierte der Rechnungslegung seit einem Jahr intensiv beschäftigt. Ausgangspunkt ist die Verordnung der EU, die im Sommer 2002 verabschiedet worden ist, die sog. IAS-Verordnung. Die IAS-Verordnung sieht vor, dass die IFRS, die auch die bisherigen IAS umfassen, zwingend ab Januar 2005 im Konzernabschluss der kapitalmarktorientierten Unternehmen anzuwenden sind. Damit ist ab dem Jahr 2005 die Anwendung der IAS/IFRS Vorschrift für den Konzernabschluss und von kapitalmarktorientierten Unternehmen zwingend anzuwenden. Der Maßnahmenkatalog der Bundesregierung vom 25.02.2003 sieht unter anderem ein Unternehmenswahlrecht zur Anwendung der IFRS für Konzernabschlüsse nicht kapitalmarktorientierter Unternehmen vor. Übergangsregelungen bis zum Jahr 2007 bestehen zum einen für deutsche Unternehmen, die auch an der New Yorker Börse gelistet sind und für Zwecke einer Börsennotierung die US-GAAP anwenden, und zum a nderen für Unter-nehmen, die keine Aktien, sondern Schuldverschreibungen an die Börse gebracht haben. In der EU bestand von allen Seiten ein großes Interesse daran, dass - jedenfalls am Kapitalmarkt - einheitliche Regeln geschaffen werden sollten. Es sollte eine „einheitliche Sprache“ gesprochen werden. Wertpapiere können heute in Frankfurt gekauft werden, aber ebenso in London, in Paris oder auch New York oder Tokio. Auf diese Weise wächst das Bedürfnis des Marktes an allen Handelsorten nach einheitlichen Regeln. Zu den einheitlichen Regeln zählt auch eine Bilanz nach einheitlichen Bilanzierungsregeln. Eine identische Sprache ist erforderlich, damit überall auf vergleichbarer Informationsgrundlage Wertpapiere gekauft und verkauft werden können.