Ecoacoustics

Download Ecoacoustics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119230691
Total Pages : 367 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (192 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Ecoacoustics by : Almo Farina

Download or read book Ecoacoustics written by Almo Farina and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2017-07-24 with total page 367 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The sounds produced by geophonic, biophonic and technophonic sources are relevant to the function of natural and human modified ecosystems. Passive recording is one of the most non-invasive technologies as its use avoids human intrusion during acoustic surveys and facilitates the accumulation of huge amounts of acoustical data. For the first time, this book collates and reviews the science behind ecoaucostics; illustrating the principles, methods and applications of this exciting new field. Topics covered in this comprehensive volume include; the assessment of biodiversity based on sounds emanating from a variety of environments the best technologies and methods necessary to investigate environmental sounds implications for climate change and urban systems the relationship between landscape ecology and ecoacoustics the conservation of soundscapes and the social value of ecoacoustics areas of potential future research. An invaluable resource for scholars, researchers and students, Ecoacoustics: The Ecological Role of Sounds provides an unrivalled set of ideas, tools and references based on the current state of the field.

Advances in Ecoacoustics

Download Advances in Ecoacoustics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2889768953
Total Pages : 150 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (897 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Advances in Ecoacoustics by : Almo Farina

Download or read book Advances in Ecoacoustics written by Almo Farina and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2022-09-02 with total page 150 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Methods in Ecoacoustics

Download Methods in Ecoacoustics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030821773
Total Pages : 132 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Methods in Ecoacoustics by : Almo Farina

Download or read book Methods in Ecoacoustics written by Almo Farina and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-02-15 with total page 132 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book represents an introduction to ecoacoustics theory, to the application of the Acoustic Complexity Indices (ACIs) to acoustic survey, and to the use of an innovative software to process acoustic data. It enables readers to comprehend the main principles that guide the recent development of ecoacoustics and offers a synthesis about the role of sound in the ecological research. Readers will be introduced to the use of the ACIs by a detailed description of the main algorithms recently formulated and on their correct application in the acoustic processing concurring to the creation of sonic information systems. Readers will also find a new dedicated software application, namely SonoScape, that is described in detail with its codes attached in the supplementary material in a completely visible format. The SonoScape is a performing software application operating in MatLab® and is enriched of several options to manage single and large collection of acoustics files. It vides the feasibility to process data at different temporal scale, using different combination of parameters, and to extract novel complexity measures such as entropy and fractal dimension of ecoacoustic events. It also offers functions to visualize the results using customized 3-D plots or ternary plots, intuitively demonstrating the patterns of ACIs based on the vast number of numerical results. Finally, this book provides several examples of case studies with the aim of better understanding the potentiality of ACIs and the power of SonoScape as multitasking software to approaching the complexity of the ecoacoustic investigation. Students and scholars in ecology, land managers and technicians may find an important tool to interpret the complex relationship between humans and natural processes when sounds are adopted as proxy.

Urban Soundscapes

Download Urban Soundscapes PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1003850472
Total Pages : 268 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Urban Soundscapes by : Usue Ruiz Arana

Download or read book Urban Soundscapes written by Usue Ruiz Arana and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2024-04-30 with total page 268 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sound and listening are intrinsically linked to how we experience and engage with places and communities. This guide puts forward a new conceptual framework of embodied affectivity that emphasises listening in urban research and design and advances new ways of knowing and making. The guide invites landscape architects and urban designers to become soundscape architects and offers practical advice on sound and listening applicable to each stage of a design project: from reading the environment to intervening on it. Urban Soundscapes foregrounds listening as an affective mediator between subjects and multispecies environments, and a vehicle to think and conceptualise environmental research and design beyond prevailing visual and human-centred modes. The guide expands landscape architects’ and urban designers’ tools and skills to assess existing soundscapes, predict how those soundscapes will be altered through their designs, consider sound as a creative and active part of the design process and envisage how users might perceive and be affected by those soundscapes as they evolve in time. The volume sits in the interface of research and practice and interweaves theoretical, methodological and creative contributions from acoustic ecology, ecoacoustics, bioacoustics and sound art. Each of the design stages is illustrated through project examples that demonstrate the many advantages of incorporating attentive listening and sound into Landscape Architecture and Urban Design Practice. This book shows how incorporating listening and sounding as part of the design process promotes slow and subtle ways of practice, adds social and ecological value through the reduction of noise pollution and by monitoring the health of habitats, and enables the design of soundscapes that complement the character and design intent of a scheme and elicit joy and wonder. The book will be of interest to practitioners and academics in landscape architecture, and other design and spatial fields such as urban design, architecture, geography and engineering, who play a primary role in the composition of the soundscape.

The Sounds of Life

Download The Sounds of Life PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691240973
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (912 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Sounds of Life by : Karen Bakker

Download or read book The Sounds of Life written by Karen Bakker and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2024-03-12 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An amazing journey into the hidden realm of nature’s sounds The natural world teems with remarkable conversations, many beyond human hearing range. Scientists are using groundbreaking digital technologies to uncover these astonishing sounds, revealing vibrant communication among our fellow creatures across the Tree of Life. At once meditative and scientific, The Sounds of Life shares fascinating and surprising stories of nonhuman sound, interweaving insights from technological innovation and traditional knowledge. We meet scientists using sound to protect and regenerate endangered species from the Great Barrier Reef to the Arctic and the Amazon. We discover the shocking impacts of noise pollution on both animals and plants. We learn how artificial intelligence can decode nonhuman sounds, and meet the researchers building dictionaries in East African Elephant and Sperm Whalish. At the frontiers of innovation, we explore digitally mediated dialogues with bats and honeybees. Technology often distracts us from nature, but what if it could reconnect us instead? The Sounds of Life offers hope for environmental conservation and affirms humanity’s relationship with nature in the digital age. After learning about the unsuspected wonders of nature’s sounds, we will never see walks outdoors in the same way again.

Sound Analysis and Synthesis with R

Download Sound Analysis and Synthesis with R PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319776479
Total Pages : 682 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (197 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Sound Analysis and Synthesis with R by : Jérôme Sueur

Download or read book Sound Analysis and Synthesis with R written by Jérôme Sueur and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-06-06 with total page 682 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sound is almost always around us, anywhere, at any time, reaching our ears and stimulating our brains for better or worse. Sound can be the disturbing noise of a drill, a merry little tune sung by a friend, the song of a bird in the morning or a clap of thunder at night. The science of sound, or acoustics, studies all types of sounds and therefore covers a wide range of scientific disciplines, from pure to applied acoustics. Research dealing with acoustics requires a sound to be recorded, analyzed, manipulated and, possibly, changed. This is particularly, but not exclusively, the case in bioacoustics and ecoacoustics, two life sciences disciplines that attempt to understand and to eavesdrop on the sound produced by animals. Sound analysis and synthesis can be challenging for students, researchers and practitioners who have few skills in mathematics or physics. However, deciphering the structure of a sound can be useful in behavioral and ecological research – and also very amusing. This book is dedicated to anyone who wants to practice acoustics but does not know much about sound. Acoustic analysis and synthesis are possible, with little effort, using the free and open-source software R with a few specific packages. Combining a bit of theory, a lot of step-by-step examples and a few cases studies, this book shows beginners and experts alike how to record, read, play, decompose, visualize, parametrize, change, and synthesize sound with R, opening a new way of working in bioacoustics and ecoacoustics but also in other acoustic disciplines.

Sound, Media, Ecology

Download Sound, Media, Ecology PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3030165698
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (31 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Sound, Media, Ecology by : Milena Droumeva

Download or read book Sound, Media, Ecology written by Milena Droumeva and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-06-27 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume reads the global urban environment through mediated sonic practices to put a contemporary spin on acoustic ecology’s investigations at the intersection of space, cultures, technology, and the senses. Acoustic ecology is an interdisciplinary framework from the 1970s for documenting, analyzing, and transforming sonic environments: an early model of the cross-boundary thinking and multi-modal practices now common across the digital humanities. With the recent emergence of sound studies and the expansion of “ecological” thinking, there is an increased urgency to re-discover and contemporize the acoustic ecology tradition. This book serves as a comprehensive investigation into the ways in which current scholars working with sound are re-inventing acoustic ecology across diverse fields, drawing on acoustic ecology’s focus on sensory experience, place, and applied research, as well as attendance to mediatized practices in sounded space. From sounding out the Anthropocene, to rethinking our auditory media landscapes, to exploring citizenship and community, this volume brings the original acoustic ecology problem set into the contemporary landscape of sound studies.

Exploring the Ecologies of Music and Sound

Download Exploring the Ecologies of Music and Sound PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000847268
Total Pages : 258 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (8 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Exploring the Ecologies of Music and Sound by : Makis Solomos

Download or read book Exploring the Ecologies of Music and Sound written by Makis Solomos and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2023-04-07 with total page 258 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Makis Solomos explores the ecologies of music and sound, inspired by Felix Guattari, for whom environmental destruction caused by capitalism goes hand in hand with deteriorating ways of living and feeling, and for whom an ecosophical stance, combining various ecological registers, offers a glimpse of emancipation, a position strengthened today by intersectional approaches. Solomos explores environmental, mental and social ecologies through the lens of the history of music and current artivisms – especially in the fields of acoustic ecology, contemporary music and sound art. Several theoretical and analytical debates are put forward, including a theory of sound milieus and the biopolitics of sound; the relationships between music and the living world; soundscape compositions, field recording, ecomusicology, and the creation of sound biotopes; the use of sound and music to violent ends as well as considering the social and political functions of music and the autonomy of art, sonic ecofeminism, degrowth in music, and much more.

Sonic Engagement

Download Sonic Engagement PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 100078052X
Total Pages : 269 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (7 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Sonic Engagement by : Sarah Woodland

Download or read book Sonic Engagement written by Sarah Woodland and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-12-28 with total page 269 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sonic Engagement examines the relationship between community engaged participatory arts and the cultural turn towards audio, sound, and listening that has been referred to as the 'sonic turn'. This edited collection investigates the use of sound and audio production in community engaged participatory arts practice and research. The popularity of podcast and audio drama, combined with the accessibility and portability of affordable field recording and home studio equipment, makes audio a compelling mode of participatory creative practice. This book maps existing projects occurring globally through a series of case study chapters that exemplify community engaged creative audio practice. The studies focus on audio and sound-based arts practices that are undertaken by artists and arts-led researchers in collaboration with (and from within) communities and groups. These practices include—applied audio drama, community engaged podcasting, sound and verbatim theatre, participatory sound art, community-led acoustic ecology, sound and media walks, digital storytelling, oral history and reminiscence, and radio drama in health and community development. The contributors interrogate the practical, political, and aesthetic potentialities of using sound and audio in community engaged arts practice, as well as its tensions and possibilities as an arts-led participatory research methodology. This book provides the first extensive analysis of what sound and audio brings to participatory, interdisciplinary, arts-led approaches, representing a vital resource for community arts, performance practice, and research in the digital age.

Emerging Approaches in Design and New Connections With Nature

Download Emerging Approaches in Design and New Connections With Nature PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 1799867269
Total Pages : 348 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (998 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Emerging Approaches in Design and New Connections With Nature by : Özdamar, Esen Gökçe

Download or read book Emerging Approaches in Design and New Connections With Nature written by Özdamar, Esen Gökçe and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2021-12-03 with total page 348 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In today’s changing and transforming socio-economic, political, cultural, and technological paradigms, we encounter many methodologies, approaches, proposals, and practices in reconsidering the disappearing or emerging relations in the human/nonhuman-environment-nature interaction. These approaches, proposals, and practices range from new methods of urban gardening to biophilic design and augmented/immersive environments. However, these human-centric approaches, which only aim to meet their needs or emerge as technology-oriented replicas and representations of nature, lead to a departure from a holistic approach to the natural and artificial environment. Therefore, how can new and emerging approaches or methodologies draw a holistic framework for environmental health, sustainability, wellness, and co-existence between environments for all living beings? Emerging Approaches in Design and New Connections With Nature covers a variety of topics related to the intersection between nature, environment, and ways of living and provides a comprehensive guide to biophilic design and the idea of design and nature, including benefits, theories, and effects. Covering topics such as biophilic design and sustainability, soundscapes and landscapes, and urban environments and design, it is ideal for architects, designers, urban planners, landscape designers, policymakers, engineers, interior designers, practitioners, students, academicians, and researchers.

Environmental Sound Artists

Download Environmental Sound Artists PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190234644
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Environmental Sound Artists by : Frederick Bianchi

Download or read book Environmental Sound Artists written by Frederick Bianchi and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2016-06-10 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Environmental Sound Artists: In Their Own Words is an incisive and imaginative look at the international environmental sound art movement, which emerged in the late 1960s. The term environmental sound art is generally applied to the work of sound artists who incorporate processes in which the artist actively engages with the environment. While the field of environmental sound art is diverse and includes a variety of approaches, the art form diverges from traditional contemporary music by the conscious and strategic integration of environmental impulses and natural processes. This book presents a current perspective on the environmental sound art movement through a collection of personal writings by important environmental sound artists. Dismayed by the limitations and gradual breakdown of contemporary compositional strategies, environmental sound artists have sought alternate venues, genres, technologies, and delivery methods for their creative expression. Environmental sound art is especially relevant because it addresses political, social, economic, scientific, and aesthetic issues. As a result, it has attracted the participation of artists internationally. Awareness and concern for the environment has connected and unified artists across the globe and has achieved a solidarity and clarity of purpose that is singularly unique and optimistic. The environmental sound art movement is borderless and thriving.

Biotremology: Studying Vibrational Behavior

Download Biotremology: Studying Vibrational Behavior PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030222934
Total Pages : 524 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (32 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Biotremology: Studying Vibrational Behavior by : Peggy S. M. Hill

Download or read book Biotremology: Studying Vibrational Behavior written by Peggy S. M. Hill and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2019-11-29 with total page 524 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume is a self-contained companion piece to Studying Vibrational Communication, published in 2014 within the same series. The field has expanded considerably since then, and has even acquired a name of its own: biotremology. In this context, the book reports on new concepts in this fascinating discipline, and features chapters on state-of-the art methods for studying behavior tied to substrate-borne vibrations, as well as an entire section on applied biotremology. Also included are a historical contribution by pioneers in the field and several chapters reviewing the advances that have been made regarding specific animal taxa. Other new topics covered are vibrational communication in vertebrates, multimodal communication, and biotremology in the classroom, as well as in art and music. Given its scope, the book will appeal to all those interested in communication and vibrational behavior, but also to those seeking to learn about an ancient mode of communication.

Principles of Soundscape Ecology

Download Principles of Soundscape Ecology PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 0226824292
Total Pages : 530 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (268 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Principles of Soundscape Ecology by : Bryan C. Pijanowski

Download or read book Principles of Soundscape Ecology written by Bryan C. Pijanowski and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2024-05-28 with total page 530 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From a founding figure in the field, the definitive introduction to an exciting new science. What do the sounds of a chorus of tropical birds and frogs, a clap of thunder, and a cacophony of urban traffic have in common? They are all components of a soundscape, acoustic environments that have been identified by scientists as a combination of the biophony, geophony, and anthrophony, respectively, of all of Earth’s sound sources. As sound is a ubiquitous occurrence in nature, it is actively sensed by most animals and is an important way for them to understand how their environment is changing. For humans, environmental sound is a major factor in creating a psychological sense of place, and many forms of sonic expression by people embed knowledge and culture. In this book, soundscape ecology pioneer Bryan C. Pijanowski presents the definitive text for both students and practitioners who are seeking to engage with this thrilling new field. Principles of Soundscape Ecology clearly outlines soundscape ecology’s critical foundations, key concepts, methods, and applications. Fundamentals include concise and valuable descriptions of the physics of sound as well as a thorough elucidation of all sounds that occur on Earth. Pijanowski also presents a rich overview of the ecological, sociocultural, and technical theories that support this new science, illustrating the breadth of this amazingly transdisciplinary field. In methods, he describes the principles of data mining, signal processing, and mixed methods approaches used to study soundscapes in ecological, social, or socio-ecological contexts. The final section focuses on terrestrial, aquatic, urban, and music applications, demonstrating soundscape ecology’s utility in nearly all spaces.

Treewilding

Download Treewilding PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Pelagic Publishing Ltd
ISBN 13 : 178427481X
Total Pages : 387 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (842 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Treewilding by : Jake Robinson

Download or read book Treewilding written by Jake Robinson and published by Pelagic Publishing Ltd. This book was released on 2024-08-01 with total page 387 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As we clear millions of hectares of forests globally, the challenge of restoring these precious ecosystems becomes ever more pressing. The stakes are high: a staggering 95% of Earth’s land could succumb to degradation by 2050. While the task might appear straightforward – simply plant millions of trees – the reality is far more perplexing. Haphazard tree-planting in unsuitable locations can wreak havoc on ecosystems and jeopardise the livelihoods of local communities. The surge of interest in restoring forests has ushered in a wave of greenwashing, where deceptive environmental marketing and scientific mishaps undermine genuine efforts. Yet this new focus also brings forth a plethora of solutions and many rays of hope. Amidst such a landscape, cutting-edge science and Indigenous knowledge together can redefine our understanding in a way that not only helps regenerate nature but also allows human communities to thrive. This original, topical and engaging book navigates the complex realm of forest restoration. It reveals how a nuanced approach is required – one that integrates the latest scientific advancements (for instance in microbial ecology, acoustic technology and epigenetics), Indigenous leadership and a holistic understanding of the interconnectedness of life within these vital ecosystems. Treewilding asks us to reflect on our relationship with trees and how we must see the woods (intricate social and ecological systems) for the wood (timber) – a realisation that is perhaps the biggest ‘secret’ to restoring nature.

Soundscape Ecology

Download Soundscape Ecology PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9400773749
Total Pages : 326 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (7 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Soundscape Ecology by : Almo Farina

Download or read book Soundscape Ecology written by Almo Farina and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-10-28 with total page 326 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Soundscape Ecology represents a new branch of ecology and it is the result of the integration of different disciplines like Landscape ecology, Bioacoustics, Acoustic ecology, Biosemiotics, etc. The soundscape that is the object of this discipline, is defined as the acoustic context resulting from natural and human originated sounds and it is considered a relevant environmental proxy for animal and human life. With Soundscape Ecology Almo Farina means to offer a new cultural tool to investigate a partially explored component of the environmental complexity. For this he intends to set the principles of this new discipline, to delineate the epistemic domain in which to develop new ideas and theories and to describe the necessary integration with all the other ecological/environmental disciplines. The book is organized in ten chapters. The first two chapters delineate principles and theory of soundscape ecology. Chapters three and four describe the bioacoustic and communication theories. Chapter five is devoted to the human dimension of soundscape. Chapters six to eight regard the major sonic patterns like noise, choruses and vibrations. Chapter nine is devoted to the methods in soundscape ecology and finally chapter ten describes the application of the soundscape analysis.

North by 2020

Download North by 2020 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Alaska Press
ISBN 13 : 1602231427
Total Pages : 754 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (22 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis North by 2020 by : Amy Lauren Lovecraft

Download or read book North by 2020 written by Amy Lauren Lovecraft and published by University of Alaska Press. This book was released on 2011-11-15 with total page 754 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Originating from a series of workshops held at the Alaska Forum of the Fourth International Polar Year, this interdisciplinary volume addresses a host of current concerns regarding the ecology and rapid transformation of the arctic. Concentrating on the most important linked social-ecological systems, including fresh water, marine resources, and oil and gas development, this volume explores opportunities for sustainable development from a variety of perspectives, among them social sciences, natural and applied sciences, and the arts. Individual chapters highlight expressions of climate change in dance, music, and film, as well as from an indigenous knowledge–based perspective.

North by 2020

Download North by 2020 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Alaska Press
ISBN 13 : 1602231435
Total Pages : 754 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (22 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis North by 2020 by : Amy Lauren Lovecraft

Download or read book North by 2020 written by Amy Lauren Lovecraft and published by University of Alaska Press. This book was released on 2011-11-15 with total page 754 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Originating from a series of workshops held at the Alaska Forum of the Fourth International Polar Year, this interdisciplinary volume addresses a host of current concerns regarding the ecology and rapid transformation of the arctic. Concentrating on the most important linked social-ecological systems, including fresh water, marine resources, and oil and gas development, this volume explores opportunities for sustainable development from a variety of perspectives, among them social sciences, natural and applied sciences, and the arts. Individual chapters highlight expressions of climate change in dance, music, and film, as well as from an indigenous knowledge–based perspective.