Current Perspectives on the Value, Teaching, Learning, and Assessment of Design in STEM Education

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Author :
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2832532527
Total Pages : 134 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (325 download)

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Book Synopsis Current Perspectives on the Value, Teaching, Learning, and Assessment of Design in STEM Education by : Jeffrey Buckley

Download or read book Current Perspectives on the Value, Teaching, Learning, and Assessment of Design in STEM Education written by Jeffrey Buckley and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2023-08-25 with total page 134 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Design is a central activity within Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) education. Within enacted practice, design can feature within intended learning outcomes, for example in learning to design, and it can feature within pedagogical methodologies, for example by learning through design. Often holding differing disciplinary interpretations such as design as cyclical problem solving, iterative design, conceptual design, or design with or without make, understanding the educational merits of the ill-defined and open nature of authentic designerly activity is paramount. This Research Topic sets out to gain a more nuanced understanding of the value and role(s) of design within STEM educational contexts. This Research Topic focuses on design within STEM educational contexts, particularly in terms of teaching, learning, and assessment. The aim is to contribute to the evidential basis which can be used to guide the incorporation of design into educational practice. The topic has two central research objectives. The first is to generate evidence regarding what design is in STEM education. For example, is the ability to design a singular or manifold construct? Is the capacity to design, or are factors of this ability, both learnable and teachable? How transferable is designerly knowledge between contexts? How do different disciplinary contexts influence the interpretation of design? The second is to further our understanding of how best to incorporate design within STEM education contexts. For example, how much emphasis should be placed on learning to or through design in school? How should design be assessed within formal education? Where and when is design best incorporated into education? In posing these questions, the goal of this research topic is to provide scholarly discourse which supports critical reflection and the challenging of assumptions regarding design in education.

Teaching and Learning STEM

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1394196342
Total Pages : 374 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (941 download)

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Book Synopsis Teaching and Learning STEM by : Richard M. Felder

Download or read book Teaching and Learning STEM written by Richard M. Felder and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2024-03-19 with total page 374 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The widely used STEM education book, updated Teaching and Learning STEM: A Practical Guide covers teaching and learning issues unique to teaching in the science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) disciplines. Secondary and postsecondary instructors in STEM areas need to master specific skills, such as teaching problem-solving, which are not regularly addressed in other teaching and learning books. This book fills the gap, addressing, topics like learning objectives, course design, choosing a text, effective instruction, active learning, teaching with technology, and assessment—all from a STEM perspective. You’ll also gain the knowledge to implement learner-centered instruction, which has been shown to improve learning outcomes across disciplines. For this edition, chapters have been updated to reflect recent cognitive science and empirical educational research findings that inform STEM pedagogy. You’ll also find a new section on actively engaging students in synchronous and asynchronous online courses, and content has been substantially revised to reflect recent developments in instructional technology and online course development and delivery. Plan and deliver lessons that actively engage students—in person or online Assess students’ progress and help ensure retention of all concepts learned Help students develop skills in problem-solving, self-directed learning, critical thinking, teamwork, and communication Meet the learning needs of STEM students with diverse backgrounds and identities The strategies presented in Teaching and Learning STEM don’t require revolutionary time-intensive changes in your teaching, but rather a gradual integration of traditional and new methods. The result will be a marked improvement in your teaching and your students’ learning.

Perspectives in Contemporary STEM Education Research

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Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000688100
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (6 download)

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Book Synopsis Perspectives in Contemporary STEM Education Research by : Thomas Delahunty

Download or read book Perspectives in Contemporary STEM Education Research written by Thomas Delahunty and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-10-13 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents an overview of the methodological innovations and developments present in the field of STEM education research as well as providing a practically orientated resource on research method design more broadly. Featuring a range of international contributors in the field, the book provides a compendium of exemplary innovative methodological designs, implementations, and analyses that answer a variety of research questions relating to STEM education disciplines. Charting the thinking behind the design and implementation of successful research investigations, the book’s two parts present an accessible and pragmatically framed set of chapters that cover a range of important methodological areas presented by active researchers in the field. Ultimately, this book presents a comprehensive resource that explores the act of educational research as related to STEM. By showcasing key methodological principles with guidance on practical approaches underpinned by theory, the book offers scholarly research-informed suggestions for practice. It will be of great interest to researchers, academics, and students in the fields of STEM education and education research methods, as well as educational research more broadly.

Asia-Pacific STEM Teaching Practices

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811507686
Total Pages : 213 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (115 download)

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Book Synopsis Asia-Pacific STEM Teaching Practices by : Ying-Shao Hsu

Download or read book Asia-Pacific STEM Teaching Practices written by Ying-Shao Hsu and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2019-11-12 with total page 213 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book offers various perspectives on the complex and crosscutting concepts of the science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) disciplines in the classroom context. Presenting empirical studies, it reveals how researchers in the Asia-Pacific Region planned and implemented STEM education in the classroom. Further, it discusses the assessment of STEM learning to clarify what important elements should be included and how researchers and educators frame and design assessment tools. The book consists of four parts: potential and trends in STEM education; teachers’ practical knowledge for STEM teaching; STEM teaching practices; and assessment of STEM learning. Providing evidence on developing curriculums, implementing instructional practices and educating classroom teachers, it is intended for readers wanting to explore STEM education from multiple perspectives.

STEM Education by Design

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Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429655800
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (296 download)

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Book Synopsis STEM Education by Design by : Brent Davis

Download or read book STEM Education by Design written by Brent Davis and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-04-29 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An accessible text that assumes no prior knowledge, this book is grounded in the realization that "STEM" and "STEM Education" have not yet evolved into fully coherent fields of study, and fills this gap by offering an original model and strategy for developing coherences in a way that both honors the integrity of each of STEM’s constituent disciplines and explores the ways they can amplify one another when used together to address complex contemporary issues. This book demonstrates how STEM can and should be understood as more than a collection of disciplines; it is a transdisciplinary, possibility-rich domain that is much more than the sum of its parts. Building on the actual work of scientists, engineers, and other professionals, the authors disrupt preconceptions about STEM domains, and provide the tools and evidence-based approaches to create new possibilities for all learners. Covering historical influences, theoretical frameworks, and current debates and challenges, this book positions teachers and students as agents of change. Each chapter features In Brief openers to introduce the topic; Opening Anecdotes to reflect the chapter’s key themes; Sidebars to put core principles in context; Consolidating Key Points activities to summarize and highlight important details; and Challenges to build upon and extend topics explored in the chapter from different angles.

Handbook of Design Research Methods in Education

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Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317639642
Total Pages : 559 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Design Research Methods in Education by : Anthony E. Kelly

Download or read book Handbook of Design Research Methods in Education written by Anthony E. Kelly and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-07-16 with total page 559 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This Handbook presents the latest thinking and current examples of design research in education. Design-based research involves introducing innovations into real-world practices (as opposed to constrained laboratory contexts) and examining the impact of those designs on the learning process. Designed prototype applications (e.g., instructional methods, software or materials) and the research findings are then cycled back into the next iteration of the design innovation in order to build evidence of the particular theories being researched, and to positively impact practice and the diffusion of the innovation. The Handbook of Design Research Methods in Education-- the defining book for the field -- fills a need in how to conduct design research by those doing so right now. The chapters represent a broad array of interpretations and examples of how today’s design researchers conceptualize this emergent methodology across areas as diverse as educational leadership, diffusion of innovations, complexity theory, and curriculum research. This volume is designed as a guide for doctoral students, early career researchers and cross-over researchers from fields outside of education interested in supporting innovation in educational settings through conducting design research.

STEAM Education

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3030040038
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis STEAM Education by : Myint Swe Khine

Download or read book STEAM Education written by Myint Swe Khine and published by Springer. This book was released on 2019-01-30 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book looks at the value of integrating the arts and sciences in the school curriculum. It argues that this will help students further their understanding of analytical concepts through the use of creativity. The authors illustrate how schools can work towards presenting common practices, concepts, and content. Coverage features case studies and lessons learned from classrooms across the United States. The notion of STEAM (Science, Technology, Engineering, Arts, and Mathematics) is an emerging discipline unique in its desire to provide a well-rounded approach to education. The chapters of this volume examine STEAM in a variety of settings, from kindergarten to higher education. Readers will learn about the practical considerations involved when introducing the arts and creativity into traditionally left brain processes. This includes best practices for creating and sustaining successful STEAM initiatives in any school, college, or university. For instance, one chapter discusses novel approaches to teach writing with the scientific method in order to help students better present their ideas. The authors also detail how the arts can engage more diverse learners, including students who are not traditionally interested in STEM subjects. They provide three concrete examples of classroom-tested inquiries: designing a prosthetic arm for a child, making a paleontology investigation, and taking a closer look at the arts within roller coaster engineering. This book is an invaluable resource for teachers and teacher trainers, university faculty, researchers, and school administrators. It will also be of interest to science, mathematics, engineering, computer science, information technology, arts and design and technology teachers.

Design Make Play for Equity, Inclusion, and Agency

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Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1351333151
Total Pages : 253 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis Design Make Play for Equity, Inclusion, and Agency by : Harouna Ba

Download or read book Design Make Play for Equity, Inclusion, and Agency written by Harouna Ba and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-08-16 with total page 253 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Focuses on the hot-button issue of STEM education and how to effectively—and equitably—stimulate student interest in STEM fields Supported by the lead author’s extensive speaking schedule and media contacts Features leading-edge research and practical advice and provides appealing and accessible forms of engagement that will support a diverse range of audiences and deepen their approach to creative STEM learning Contributions from program developers, facilitators, educators, exhibit designers, and researchers

International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9400776543
Total Pages : 2532 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (7 download)

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Book Synopsis International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching by : Michael R. Matthews

Download or read book International Handbook of Research in History, Philosophy and Science Teaching written by Michael R. Matthews and published by Springer. This book was released on 2014-07-03 with total page 2532 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This inaugural handbook documents the distinctive research field that utilizes history and philosophy in investigation of theoretical, curricular and pedagogical issues in the teaching of science and mathematics. It is contributed to by 130 researchers from 30 countries; it provides a logically structured, fully referenced guide to the ways in which science and mathematics education is, informed by the history and philosophy of these disciplines, as well as by the philosophy of education more generally. The first handbook to cover the field, it lays down a much-needed marker of progress to date and provides a platform for informed and coherent future analysis and research of the subject. The publication comes at a time of heightened worldwide concern over the standard of science and mathematics education, attended by fierce debate over how best to reform curricula and enliven student engagement in the subjects. There is a growing recognition among educators and policy makers that the learning of science must dovetail with learning about science; this handbook is uniquely positioned as a locus for the discussion. The handbook features sections on pedagogical, theoretical, national, and biographical research, setting the literature of each tradition in its historical context. It reminds readers at a crucial juncture that there has been a long and rich tradition of historical and philosophical engagements with science and mathematics teaching, and that lessons can be learnt from these engagements for the resolution of current theoretical, curricular and pedagogical questions that face teachers and administrators. Science educators will be grateful for this unique, encyclopaedic handbook, Gerald Holton, Physics Department, Harvard University This handbook gathers the fruits of over thirty years’ research by a growing international and cosmopolitan community Fabio Bevilacqua, Physics Department, University of Pavia

STEM Project-Based Learning

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9462091439
Total Pages : 198 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (62 download)

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Book Synopsis STEM Project-Based Learning by : Robert M. Capraro

Download or read book STEM Project-Based Learning written by Robert M. Capraro and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-04-20 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This second edition of Project-Based Learning (PBL) presents an original approach to Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) centric PBL. We define PBL as an “ill-defined task with a well-defined outcome,” which is consistent with our engineering design philosophy and the accountability highlighted in a standards-based environment. This model emphasizes a backward design that is initiated by well-defined outcomes, tied to local, state, or national standard that provide teachers with a framework guiding students’ design, solving, or completion of ill-defined tasks. This book was designed for middle and secondary teachers who want to improve engagement and provide contextualized learning for their students. However, the nature and scope of the content covered in the 14 chapters are appropriate for preservice teachers as well as for advanced graduate method courses. New to this edition is revised and expanded coverage of STEM PBL, including implementing STEM PBL with English Language Learners and the use of technology in PBL. The book also includes many new teacher-friendly forms, such as advanced organizers, team contracts for STEM PBL, and rubrics for assessing PBL in a larger format.

Science and Engineering for Grades 6-12

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Author :
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309482607
Total Pages : 329 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (94 download)

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Book Synopsis Science and Engineering for Grades 6-12 by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Download or read book Science and Engineering for Grades 6-12 written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2019-03-12 with total page 329 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It is essential for today's students to learn about science and engineering in order to make sense of the world around them and participate as informed members of a democratic society. The skills and ways of thinking that are developed and honed through engaging in scientific and engineering endeavors can be used to engage with evidence in making personal decisions, to participate responsibly in civic life, and to improve and maintain the health of the environment, as well as to prepare for careers that use science and technology. The majority of Americans learn most of what they know about science and engineering as middle and high school students. During these years of rapid change for students' knowledge, attitudes, and interests, they can be engaged in learning science and engineering through schoolwork that piques their curiosity about the phenomena around them in ways that are relevant to their local surroundings and to their culture. Many decades of education research provide strong evidence for effective practices in teaching and learning of science and engineering. One of the effective practices that helps students learn is to engage in science investigation and engineering design. Broad implementation of science investigation and engineering design and other evidence-based practices in middle and high schools can help address present-day and future national challenges, including broadening access to science and engineering for communities who have traditionally been underrepresented and improving students' educational and life experiences. Science and Engineering for Grades 6-12: Investigation and Design at the Center revisits America's Lab Report: Investigations in High School Science in order to consider its discussion of laboratory experiences and teacher and school readiness in an updated context. It considers how to engage today's middle and high school students in doing science and engineering through an analysis of evidence and examples. This report provides guidance for teachers, administrators, creators of instructional resources, and leaders in teacher professional learning on how to support students as they make sense of phenomena, gather and analyze data/information, construct explanations and design solutions, and communicate reasoning to self and others during science investigation and engineering design. It also provides guidance to help educators get started with designing, implementing, and assessing investigation and design.

Integrated Approaches to STEM Education

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Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030522296
Total Pages : 569 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (35 download)

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Book Synopsis Integrated Approaches to STEM Education by : Judy Anderson

Download or read book Integrated Approaches to STEM Education written by Judy Anderson and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-12-23 with total page 569 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a platform for international scholars to share evidence for effective practices in integrated STEM education and contributes to the theoretical and practical knowledge gained from the diversity of approaches. Many publications on STEM education focus on one or two of the separate STEM disciplines without considering the potential for delivering STEM curriculum as an integrated approach.This publication analyzes the efficacy of an integrated STEM curriculum and instruction, providing evidence to examine and support various integrations. The volume focuses on the problems seen by academics working in the fields of science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and provides valuable, high quality research outcomes and a set of valued practices which have demonstrated their use and viability to improve the quality of integrated STEM education.

Science Teaching

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Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136336753
Total Pages : 562 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (363 download)

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Book Synopsis Science Teaching by : Michael R. Matthews

Download or read book Science Teaching written by Michael R. Matthews and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-09-19 with total page 562 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Science Teaching explains how history and philosophy of science contributes to the resolution of persistent theoretical, curricular, and pedagogical issues in science education. It shows why it is essential for science teachers to know and appreciate the history and philosophy of the subject they teach and how this knowledge can enrich science instruction and enthuse students in the subject. Through its historical perspective, the book reveals to students, teachers, and researchers the foundations of scientific knowledge and its connection to philosophy, metaphysics, mathematics, and broader social influences including the European Enlightenment, and develops detailed arguments about constructivism, worldviews and science, multicultural science education, inquiry teaching, values, and teacher education. Fully updated and expanded, the 20th Anniversary Edition of this classic text, featuring four new chapters—The Enlightenment Tradition; Joseph Priestley and Photosynthesis; Science, Worldviews and Education; and Nature of Science Research—and 1,300 references, provides a solid foundation for teaching and learning in the field.

The Art of Teaching Science

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Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1135890005
Total Pages : 577 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (358 download)

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Book Synopsis The Art of Teaching Science by : Jack Hassard

Download or read book The Art of Teaching Science written by Jack Hassard and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-07-04 with total page 577 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Art of Teaching Science emphasizes a humanistic, experiential, and constructivist approach to teaching and learning, and integrates a wide variety of pedagogical tools. Becoming a science teacher is a creative process, and this innovative textbook encourages students to construct ideas about science teaching through their interactions with peers, mentors, and instructors, and through hands-on, minds-on activities designed to foster a collaborative, thoughtful learning environment. This second edition retains key features such as inquiry-based activities and case studies throughout, while simultaneously adding new material on the impact of standardized testing on inquiry-based science, and explicit links to science teaching standards. Also included are expanded resources like a comprehensive website, a streamlined format and updated content, making the experiential tools in the book even more useful for both pre- and in-service science teachers. Special Features: Each chapter is organized into two sections: one that focuses on content and theme; and one that contains a variety of strategies for extending chapter concepts outside the classroom Case studies open each chapter to highlight real-world scenarios and to connect theory to teaching practice Contains 33 Inquiry Activities that provide opportunities to explore the dimensions of science teaching and increase professional expertise Problems and Extensions, On the Web Resources and Readings guide students to further critical investigation of important concepts and topics. An extensive companion website includes even more student and instructor resources, such as interviews with practicing science teachers, articles from the literature, chapter PowerPoint slides, syllabus helpers, additional case studies, activities, and more. Visit http://www.routledge.com/textbooks/9780415965286 to access this additional material.

The Next Generation of STEM Teachers

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Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 1475822766
Total Pages : 187 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (758 download)

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Book Synopsis The Next Generation of STEM Teachers by : Patrick M. Jenlink

Download or read book The Next Generation of STEM Teachers written by Patrick M. Jenlink and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2019-04-13 with total page 187 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: STEM Teaching: An Interdisciplinary Approach breaks from the more historical idea of making knowledge within disciplines and seeks to engage the reader in a growing conversation that is gaining momentum and is focused on an ‘interdisciplinarity of STEM education’, which seeks to embrace and/or present emerging perspectives on the standards. Importantly, the conversation on STEM education and interdisciplinary approaches to teacher preparation may draw into specific relief the respective professional and/or disciplinary standards for each of the four STEM disciplines as each relates to fostering an interdisciplinary approach. The importance and relevance of this interdisciplinary perspective to teacher preparation lies in the realization that STEM literacy moves into everyday lives and thinking, and not just in STEM related disciplines. This means that faculty in teacher preparation need to extend the range of STEM literacy in pedagogical strategies so that STEM teaching is enriched with multimodal literacies into teaching and learning, which in turn makes STEM knowledge more relevant and engaging for its manifest connections to solving the problems that challenge society.

Iterative Design of Teaching-Learning Sequences

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Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9400778082
Total Pages : 382 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (7 download)

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Book Synopsis Iterative Design of Teaching-Learning Sequences by : Dimitris Psillos

Download or read book Iterative Design of Teaching-Learning Sequences written by Dimitris Psillos and published by Springer. This book was released on 2015-11-24 with total page 382 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book addresses a very important aspect of science education and science education research respectively: The research-based development of Teaching Learning Sequences. The authors elaborate on important theoretical issues as well as aspects of the design and iterative evolution of a several Teaching Learning Sequences in a modern scientific and technological field which is socially relevant and educationally significant. The book is divided into two parts. The first part includes a collection of papers discussing the theoretical foundations and characteristics of selected theoretical frameworks related to designing Teaching Learning Sequences, elaborate on common issues and draw on the wider perspective of design research in education. The second part contains a collection of papers presenting case studies concerning the design, implementation, iterative evolution and evaluation of Teaching and Learning Sequences in a variety of educational context. The case studies deal with a more or less new subject matter, a part of modern interdisciplinary science, material science, which enhances the connections between science and technology. From a wider perspective the case studies draw on existing theoretical ideas on inquiry in various contexts and provide powerful suggestions for contextualized innovation in a variety of school systems and existing practices.

Quality Research in Literacy and Science Education

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1402084277
Total Pages : 667 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Quality Research in Literacy and Science Education by : Mack C. Shelley

Download or read book Quality Research in Literacy and Science Education written by Mack C. Shelley and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2008-12-30 with total page 667 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Statistical models attempt to describe and quantify relationships between variables. In the models presented in this chapter, there is a response variable (sometimes called dependent variable) and at least one predictor variable (sometimes called independent or explanatory variable). When investigating a possible cause-and-effect type of relationship, the response variable is the putative effect and the predictors are the hypothesized causes. Typically, there is a main predictor variable of interest; other predictors in the model are called covariates. Unknown covariates or other independent variables not controlled in an experiment or analysis can affect the dependent or outcome variable and mislead the conclusions made from the inquiry (Bock, Velleman, & De Veaux, 2009). A p value (p) measures the statistical significance of the observed relationship; given the model, p is the probability that a relationship is seen by mere chance. The smaller the p value, the more confident we can be that the pattern seen in the data 2 is not random. In the type of models examined here, the R measures the prop- tion of the variation in the response variable that is explained by the predictors 2 specified in the model; if R is close to 1, then almost all the variation in the response variable has been explained. This measure is also known as the multiple correlation coefficient. Statistical studies can be grouped into two types: experimental and observational.