Contesting Marginality

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Producing and Contesting Urban Marginality

Author : Julie Cupples
Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 1786606429
Total Pages : 247 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (866 download)

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Book Synopsis Producing and Contesting Urban Marginality by : Julie Cupples

Download or read book Producing and Contesting Urban Marginality written by Julie Cupples and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2019-10-25 with total page 247 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Mexico City, as in many other large cities worldwide, contemporary modes of urban governance have overwhelmingly benefited affluent populations and widened social inequalities. Disinvestment from social housing and rent-seeking developments by real estate companies and land speculators have resulted in the displacement of low-income populations to the urban periphery. Public social spaces have been eliminated to make way for luxury apartments and business interests. Low-income neighbourhoods are often stigmatized by dominant social forces to justify their demolition. The urban poor have however negotiated and resisted these developments in a range of ways. This text explores these urban dynamics in Mexico City and beyond, looking at the material and symbolic mechanisms through which urban marginality is produced and contested. It seeks to understand how things might be otherwise, how the city might be geared towards more inclusive forms of belonging and citizenship.

Contesting Marginality

Author : Sajal Nag
Publisher : Technical Publications
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 394 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Contesting Marginality by : Sajal Nag

Download or read book Contesting Marginality written by Sajal Nag and published by Technical Publications. This book was released on 2002 with total page 394 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: North-East India Has, Over The Years, Become Synonymous With Secessionism, Insurgency, Violence And Turbulence. The Present Study Is About This Crisis And How It Led The Hill Communities To Organize And Equip Themselves, Debate And Decide Their Future Course Of Action And Confront The Colonial And Post-Colonial Indian States And The Process Through Which This Confrontation Led To The Growth Of Secessionism. This Book Details The Entire Process From The Pre-British Period To Date During Which The Movement Itself Underwent Several Crises And Metamorphoses And As A Result Some Struggles Crumpled While Others Still Carry On The Revolt. Although A Number Of Bestsellers Are Available On The Subject, This Is The First Serious Academic Work Written By A Professional Historian.

Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity

Author : Kamran Scot Aghaie
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 0292757492
Total Pages : 374 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (927 download)

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Book Synopsis Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity by : Kamran Scot Aghaie

Download or read book Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity written by Kamran Scot Aghaie and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2014-07-01 with total page 374 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While recent books have explored Arab and Turkish nationalism, the nuances of Iran have received scant book-length study—until now. Capturing the significant changes in approach that have shaped this specialization, Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity shares innovative research and charts new areas of analysis from an array of scholars in the field. Delving into a wide range of theoretical and conceptual perspectives, the essays—all previously unpublished—encompass social history, literary theory, postcolonial studies, and comparative analysis to address such topics as: Ethnicity in the Islamic Republic of Iran Political Islam and religious nationalism The evolution of U.S.-Iranian relations before and after the Cold War Comparing Islamic and secular nationalism(s) in Egypt and Iran The German counterrevolution and its influence on Iranian political alliances The effects of Israel's image as a Euro-American space Sufism Geocultural concepts in Azar's Atashkadeh Interdisciplinary in essence, the essays also draw from sociology, gender studies, and art and architecture. Posing compelling questions while challenging the conventional historiographical traditions, the authors (many of whom represent a new generation of Iranian studies scholars) give voice to a research approach that embraces the modern era's complexity while emphasizing Iranian nationalism's contested, multifaceted, and continuously transformative possibilities.

Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities

Author : Andrew J. Fuligni
Publisher : Russell Sage Foundation
ISBN 13 : 1610442334
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (14 download)

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Book Synopsis Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities by : Andrew J. Fuligni

Download or read book Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities written by Andrew J. Fuligni and published by Russell Sage Foundation. This book was released on 2007-05-31 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the end of legal segregation in schools, most research on educational inequality has focused on economic and other structural obstacles to the academic achievement of disadvantaged groups. But in Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities, a distinguished group of psychologists and social scientists argue that stereotypes about the academic potential of some minority groups remain a significant barrier to their achievement. This groundbreaking volume examines how low institutional and cultural expectations of minorities hinder their academic success, how these stereotypes are perpetuated, and the ways that minority students attempt to empower themselves by redefining their identities. The contributors to Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities explore issues of ethnic identity and educational inequality from a broad range of disciplinary perspectives, drawing on historical analyses, social-psychological experiments, interviews, and observation. Meagan Patterson and Rebecca Bigler show that when teachers label or segregate students according to social categories (even in subtle ways), students are more likely to rank and stereotype one another, so educators must pay attention to the implicit or unintentional ways that they emphasize group differences. Many of the contributors contest John Ogbu’s theory that African Americans have developed an “oppositional culture” that devalues academic effort as a form of “acting white.” Daphna Oyserman and Daniel Brickman, in their study of black and Latino youth, find evidence that strong identification with their ethnic group is actually associated with higher academic motivation among minority youth. Yet, as Julie Garcia and Jennifer Crocker find in a study of African-American female college students, the desire to disprove negative stereotypes about race and gender can lead to anxiety, low self-esteem, and excessive, self-defeating levels of effort, which impede learning and academic success. The authors call for educational institutions to diffuse these threats to minority students’ identities by emphasizing that intelligence is a malleable rather than a fixed trait. Contesting Stereotypes and Creating Identities reveals the many hidden ways that educational opportunities are denied to some social groups. At the same time, this probing and wide-ranging anthology provides a fresh perspective on the creative ways that these groups challenge stereotypes and attempt to participate fully in the educational system.

Warfare and Society in British India, 1757–1947

Author : Ashutosh Kumar
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000800555
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis Warfare and Society in British India, 1757–1947 by : Ashutosh Kumar

Download or read book Warfare and Society in British India, 1757–1947 written by Ashutosh Kumar and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-12-30 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book explores the intricate and intimate relationship between military organization, imperial policy, and society in colonial South Asia. The chapters in the volume focus on technology, logistics, and state building. The present volume highlights the salient features of expansion and consolidation of imperial control over the subcontinent, and ultimate demise of the Raj. Further, it turns the spotlight on to subaltern challenges to imperialism as well as the role of non-combatants in warfare. The volume: • Deals with both conventional and guerrilla conflicts and focuses on the frontiers (both North-West and North-East, including Burma); • Looks at the army as an institution rather than present a chronological account of military operations, which highlights the complex and tortuous relationship between combat institution, colonial state, and Indian society; • Integrates top-down approaches in military and strategic studies with the bottom-up perspectives and discusses on how the conduct of war (organisation and technology) is related to the economic, societal, and cultural impact of war. A rich account of the British ‘Army in India’, this book will be essential reading for scholars and researchers of South Asian history, military history, political history, colonialism, and the British Empire.

Lumpencity

Author : Alan Bourke
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781926958163
Total Pages : 444 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (581 download)

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Book Synopsis Lumpencity by : Alan Bourke

Download or read book Lumpencity written by Alan Bourke and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page 444 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While it has been fashionable to think that academic research benefits marginalized groups, representational and methodological choices have often served to produce and legitimize marginalizing practices. The contributions to this volume reveal how authors have sought to engage with and transform their scholarly repertoires into tools of analysis useful for political action. We hope to encourage scholars, activists, and activist-scholars to reflect upon the complementarity of their academic and activist praxis, and to remain committed to unsettling both disciplinary norms and institutional boundaries. This is a task of particular urgency given that scholars are experiencing more pressure than ever before to become the organic intellectuals of the status quo. Table of Contents: Acknowledgements/5 1. Lumpen-City: Discourses of Marginality Marginalizing Discourses Alan Bourke, Tia Dafnos, and Markus Kip/9 Part I Contesting Discourses of Marginality 2. Understanding Obama's Discourse on Urban Poverty David Wilson and Matthew Anderson/43 3. Legitimizing Violence and Segregation: Neoliberal Discourses on Crime and the Criminalization of Urban Poor Populations in Turkey Zeynep Gonen and Deniz Yonucu/75 4. Homelessness as Neoliberal Discourse: Reflections on Research and the Narrowing of Poverty Policy Mark Willson/105 5. Samuel Delany's Lumpen Worlds and the Problem of Representing Marginality Lisa Estreich/131 Part II Contested Representations 6. Indigeneity and the City: Representations, Resistance, and the Right to the City Julie Tomiak/163 7. Palestinian Refugees and Citizens: Trajectories of Group Solidarity and Politics Silvia Pasquetti/193 8. Sexual Violence and the Creation of a Postcolonial Ordinary: Engagements Between Street-Based Sex Workers and the Police in Machala, Ecuador Karen O'Connor/227 9. Making Sense of Failure: Why German Trade Unions Did Not Mobilize Against the Hartz-IV Reforms-Partisan Research in Frankfurt, Germany Markus Kip /257 Part III Methodological Reflexivities 10. Participatory Practices: Contesting Accountability in Academic-Community Research Collaborations Alan Bourke/291 11. Lost in Translation: The Social Relations of an Institutional Ethnography of Activism Kate M. Murray/323 12. Shifting the Gaze "Upwards" Researching the Police as an Institution of Power Tia Dafnos/355 13. Our Streets! Practice and Theory of the Ottawa Panhandlers' Union Matthew R. McLennan/389 14. Afterword: A Call to Activist Scholarship/409 (End)Notes/417 Contributors/442

Contesting Christendom

Author : James L. Halverson
Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 9780742554726
Total Pages : 262 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (547 download)

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Book Synopsis Contesting Christendom by : James L. Halverson

Download or read book Contesting Christendom written by James L. Halverson and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2008 with total page 262 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The pervasiveness of the Christian religion has long been treated as one of the key features of medieval society. Indeed, Europe in the Middle Ages is often described simply as a Christian culture. Yet what do we mean when we say that medieval Europe was a Christian society, and what did it mean to be a Christian in the Middle Ages? These questions are fundamental to any understanding of the Middle Ages, yet the variety of theoretical approaches and conclusions represented in this carefully selected and provocative collection of key works in the field highlights the complexity of the answers. Introducing students to medieval Christianity, James L. Halverson presents a rich array of readings that offers a variety of ways to study the history of religion within a chronological setting. His opening chapter and introductions to each section and selection frame the essays and provide a strong conceptual framework to build upon. Making it clear that scholars have approached religion from many perspectives and used many different methodologies, this collection presents some of the best scholarship of religion as culture and practice, emphasizing the ongoing attempt to understand the social and cultural aspects of medieval Christianity. Contributions by: Rudolf Bell, Constance Brittain Bouchard, Peter Brown, Marcus Bull, Caroline Walker Bynum, Mark R. Cohen, Georges Duby, Eamon Duffy, Joan Ferrante, Richard Fletcher, Katherine L. French, Thomas A. Fudge, Herbert Grundmann, James L. Halverson, Karen Louise Jolly, Lester Little, Rob Means, Bernd Moeller, Andrew P. Roach, Jane Tibbets Schulenburg, Keith Thomas, and Ian Wood.

Contested Countryside Cultures

Author : Paul Cloke
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1134769555
Total Pages : 296 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (347 download)

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Book Synopsis Contested Countryside Cultures by : Paul Cloke

Download or read book Contested Countryside Cultures written by Paul Cloke and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2005-08-12 with total page 296 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book charts the experiences of marginalised groups living in (and visiting) the countryside, revealing how notions of the rural have been created to reflect and reinforce divisions among those living there.

The Mizo Uprising

Author : Dr. J. V. Hluna
Publisher : Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1443845027
Total Pages : 380 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (438 download)

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Book Synopsis The Mizo Uprising by : Dr. J. V. Hluna

Download or read book The Mizo Uprising written by Dr. J. V. Hluna and published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. This book was released on 2013-01-03 with total page 380 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From March 1, 1966 when the Mizo National Front declared independence, to June 30, 1986 when a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between the MNF and the Indian Government, the peace-loving Mizo people were caught in the midst of a devastating war. Records of this twenty-year period are rare, as the very keeping of written accounts was considered a crime against the government. The Mizo Hills was a district in India’s state of Assam and the Assam Legislative Assembly Debates from 1966 to 1972 are one of the few official records available of the period. Members of the Assembly bring to light significant events during the course of the insurgency, including India’s only aerial attack against its own citizens on March 5, 1966 and the re-settlement of eighty percent of the Mizo Hills’ population, reminiscent of South Vietnam’s Agrovilles. The book traces the twenty-year movement through these debates, supplementing them with notes on the course of events gleaned through extensive research leading up to the creation of the state of Mizoram in 1986. The Mizo Peace Accord remains one of the most successful accords in the world and Mizoram one of the most peaceful states in India.

Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity

Author : Kamran Scot Aghaie
Publisher : University of Texas Press
ISBN 13 : 0292757514
Total Pages : 494 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (927 download)

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Book Synopsis Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity by : Kamran Scot Aghaie

Download or read book Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity written by Kamran Scot Aghaie and published by University of Texas Press. This book was released on 2014-07-01 with total page 494 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While recent books have explored Arab and Turkish nationalism, the nuances of Iran have received scant book-length study—until now. Capturing the significant changes in approach that have shaped this specialization, Rethinking Iranian Nationalism and Modernity shares innovative research and charts new areas of analysis from an array of scholars in the field. Delving into a wide range of theoretical and conceptual perspectives, the essays—all previously unpublished—encompass social history, literary theory, postcolonial studies, and comparative analysis to address such topics as: Ethnicity in the Islamic Republic of Iran Political Islam and religious nationalism The evolution of U.S.-Iranian relations before and after the Cold War Comparing Islamic and secular nationalism(s) in Egypt and Iran The German counterrevolution and its influence on Iranian political alliances The effects of Israel’s image as a Euro-American space Sufism Geocultural concepts in Azar’s Atashkadeh Interdisciplinary in essence, the essays also draw from sociology, gender studies, and art and architecture. Posing compelling questions while challenging the conventional historiographical traditions, the authors (many of whom represent a new generation of Iranian studies scholars) give voice to a research approach that embraces the modern era’s complexity while emphasizing Iranian nationalism’s contested, multifaceted, and continuously transformative possibilities.

Modern Practices in North East India

Author : Lipokmar Dzüvichü
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1351271342
Total Pages : 342 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (512 download)

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Book Synopsis Modern Practices in North East India by : Lipokmar Dzüvichü

Download or read book Modern Practices in North East India written by Lipokmar Dzüvichü and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2017-11-13 with total page 342 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book brings together essays on North East India from across disciplines to explore new understandings of the colonial and contemporary realities of the region. Departing from the usual focus on identity and politics, it offers fresh representations from history, social anthropology, culture, literature, politics, performance and gender. Through the lens of modern practices, the essays in this volume engage with diverse issues, including state-making practices, knowledge production and its politics, history writing, colonialism, role of capital, institutions, changing locations of orality and modernity, production and reception of texts, performances and literatures, social change and memory, violence and gender relations, along with their wider historical, geographical and ideational mappings. In the process, they illustrate how the specificities of the region can become useful sites to interrogate global phenomena and processes — for instance, in what ways ideas and practices of modernity played an important role in framing the region and its people. Further, the volume underlines the complex ways in which the past came to be imagined, produced and contested in the region. With its blend of inter-disciplinary approach, analytical models and perspectives, this book will be useful to scholars, researchers and general readers interested in North East India and those working on history, frontiers and borderlands, gender, cultural studies and literature.

Confronting Equity and Inclusion Incidents on Campus

Author : Hannah Oliha-Donaldson
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429559844
Total Pages : 240 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (295 download)

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Book Synopsis Confronting Equity and Inclusion Incidents on Campus by : Hannah Oliha-Donaldson

Download or read book Confronting Equity and Inclusion Incidents on Campus written by Hannah Oliha-Donaldson and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2020-11-29 with total page 240 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This timely book unpacks critical incidents occurring on college and university campuses across the nation. Featuring the voices of faculty, staff, and students, this edited volume offers an interdisciplinary exploration of contemporary diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) challenges at the intersections of race, class, gender, and socioeconomic status, while illuminating lessons learned and promising practices. The narratives in this book articulate contemporary challenges, unpack real events, and explore both failed and successful responses, ultimately shining a spotlight on emerging solutions and opportunities for change. Marrying theory and practice, Confronting Equity and Inclusion Incidents on Campus provides a framework for building more inclusive campuses that embody equity and the values of community. A key resource for professionals, students, and scholars of higher education, this volume provides understanding for fostering educational spaces that cultivate belonging among all members of higher education communities, including those historically underrepresented and marginalized.

Revisiting India's Partition

Author : Amritjit Singh
Publisher : Lexington Books
ISBN 13 : 1498531059
Total Pages : 401 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (985 download)

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Book Synopsis Revisiting India's Partition by : Amritjit Singh

Download or read book Revisiting India's Partition written by Amritjit Singh and published by Lexington Books. This book was released on 2016-06-15 with total page 401 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Revisiting India’s Partition: New Essays on Memory, Culture, and Politics brings together scholars from across the globe to provide diverse perspectives on the continuing impact of the 1947 division of India on the eve of independence from the British Empire. The Partition caused a million deaths and displaced well over 10 million people. The trauma of brutal violence and displacement still haunts the survivors as well as their children and grandchildren. Nearly 70 years after this cataclysmic event, Revisiting India’s Partition explores the impact of the “Long Partition,” a concept developed by Vazira Zamindar to underscore the ongoing effects of the 1947 Partition upon all South Asian nations. In our collection, we extend and expand Zamindar’s notion of the Long Partition to examine the cultural, political, economic, and psychological impact the Partition continues to have on communities throughout the South Asian diaspora. The nineteen interdisciplinary essays in this book provide a multi-vocal, multi-focal, transnational commentary on the Partition in relation to motifs, communities, and regions in South Asia that have received scant attention in previous scholarship. In their individual essays, contributors offer new engagements on South Asia in relation to several topics, including decolonization and post-colony, economic development and nation-building, cross-border skirmishes and terrorism, and nationalism. This book is dedicated to covering areas beyond Punjab and Bengal and includes analyses of how Sindh and Kashmir, Hyderabad, and more broadly South India, the Northeast, and Burma call for special attention in coming to terms with memory, culture and politics surrounding the Partition.

Marginality, Power and Social Structure

Author : Rutledge M. Dennis
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0762302771
Total Pages : 284 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (623 download)

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Book Synopsis Marginality, Power and Social Structure by : Rutledge M. Dennis

Download or read book Marginality, Power and Social Structure written by Rutledge M. Dennis and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2005-04-08 with total page 284 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The articles in this book are intended to be a much-needed corrective to the literature on marginality. In the recent past, and at present, the concept of marginality has been used with little specificity, and when used with specificity, the delineation of the complex dimensions of the term has been less than satisfactory. To illustrate the many ways in which marginality exists and operates in many societies Rutledge Dennis has assembled a rich array of articles designed to highlight the history and evolution of the concept of marginality along with the theorists, issues and situations which prompted the use of the term, and the issues for which the term is applicable today. The very title of the volume comes into play here because, though many of the early marginality theorists took the term into the realm of psychology, the contributors to this volume who discussed the theory highlighted the social structural foundation of marginality. Dennis sought a marriage of theory and research while assembling the articles for this volume. For this reason he actively sought papers which used divergent research strategies to uncover the existence of marginality in its various forms and contexts. Thus, some of the papers utilize ethnographic and life history approaches, whereas others use statistical analysis and historical data analysis. In addition to theoretical and methodological concerns a major theme for this volume is the combination of both theory and method towards an investigation of issues and problems emanate from the social structure, and are closely linked to power and domination.

Thinking About Exhibitions

Author : Bruce W. Ferguson
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1134820011
Total Pages : 520 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (348 download)

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Book Synopsis Thinking About Exhibitions by : Bruce W. Ferguson

Download or read book Thinking About Exhibitions written by Bruce W. Ferguson and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2005-08-11 with total page 520 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An anthology of writings on exhibition practice from artists, critics, curators and art historians plus artist-curators. It addresses the contradictions posed by museum and gallery sited exhibitions, as well as investigating the challenge of staging art presentations, displays or performances, in settings outside of traditional museum or gallery locales.

Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization

Author : Derek M.D. Silva
Publisher : Emerald Group Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1839829907
Total Pages : 325 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (398 download)

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Book Synopsis Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization by : Derek M.D. Silva

Download or read book Radicalization and Counter-Radicalization written by Derek M.D. Silva and published by Emerald Group Publishing. This book was released on 2020-09-09 with total page 325 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The fifteen chapters in this volume of Sociology of Crime, Law, and Deviance discuss a number of issues researchers in the fields of sociology, criminology, and criminal justice theorize, conceptualize, and measure racialization and counter-radicalization.

Marginality in the Urban Center

Author : Peary Brug
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319964666
Total Pages : 308 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (199 download)

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Book Synopsis Marginality in the Urban Center by : Peary Brug

Download or read book Marginality in the Urban Center written by Peary Brug and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-12-22 with total page 308 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book examines the increasing marginalization of and response by people living in urban areas throughout the Western Hemisphere, and both the local and global implications of continued colonial racial hierarchies and the often-dire consequences they have for people perceived as different. However, in the aftermath of recent U.S. elections, whiteness also seems to embody strictures on religion, ethnicity, country of origin, and almost any other personal characteristic deemed suspect at the moment. For that reason, gender, race, and even class, collectively, may not be sufficient units of analysis to study the marginalizing mechanisms of the urban center. The authors interrogate the social and institutional structures that facilitate the disenfranchisement or downward trajectory of groups, and their potential or subsequent lack of access to mainstream rewards. The book also seeks to highlight examples where marginalized groups have found ways to assert their equality. No recent texts have attempted to connect the mechanisms of marginality across geographical and political boundaries within the Western Hemisphere.