Computational Fluid Dynamics Study Of Aerosol Transport And Deposition Mechanisms

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Computational Fluid Dynamics Study of Aerosol Transport and Deposition Mechanisms

Author : Yingjie Tang
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (813 download)

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Book Synopsis Computational Fluid Dynamics Study of Aerosol Transport and Deposition Mechanisms by : Yingjie Tang

Download or read book Computational Fluid Dynamics Study of Aerosol Transport and Deposition Mechanisms written by Yingjie Tang and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this work, various aerosol particle transport and deposition mechanisms were studied through the computational fluid dynamics (CFD) modeling, including inertial impaction, gravitational effect, lift force, interception, and turbophoresis, within different practical applications including aerosol sampling inlet, filtration system and turbulent pipe flows. The objective of the research is to obtain a better understanding of the mechanisms that affect aerosol particle transport and deposition, and to determine the feasibility and accuracy of using commercial CFD tools in predicting performance of aerosol sampling devices. Flow field simulation was carried out first, and then followed by Lagrangian particle tracking to obtain the aerosol transport and deposition information. The CFD-based results were validated with experimental data and empirical correlations. In the simulation of the aerosol inlet, CFD-based penetration was in excellent agreement with experimental results, and the most significant regional particle deposition occurred due to inertial separation. At higher free wind speeds gravity had less effect on particle deposition. An empirical equation for efficiency prediction was developed considering inertial and gravitational effects, which will be useful for directing design of similar aerosol inlets. In the simulation of aerosol deposition on a screen, a "virtual surface" approach, which eliminates the need for the often-ambiguous user defined functions, was developed to account for particle deposition due to interception. The CFD-based results had a good agreement compared with experimental results, and also with published empirical correlations for interception. In the simulation of turbulent deposition in pipe flows, the relation between particle deposition velocity and wall-normal turbulent velocity fluctuation was quantitative determined for the first time, which could be used to quantify turbulent deposition, without having to carry out Lagrangian particle tracking. It suggested that the Reynolds stress model and large eddy simulation would lead to the most accurate simulated aerosol deposition velocity. The prerequisites were that the wall-adjacent y+ value was sufficiently low, and that sufficient number of prism layers was applied in the near-wall region. The "velocity fluctuation convergence" would be useful criterion for judging the adequacy of a CFD simulation for turbulent deposition.

Medical Applications of Computer Modelling

Author : Ted B. Martonen
Publisher : Witpress
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 376 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Medical Applications of Computer Modelling by : Ted B. Martonen

Download or read book Medical Applications of Computer Modelling written by Ted B. Martonen and published by Witpress. This book was released on 2001 with total page 376 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Designed for use in both academic and research environments, this volume addresses applications of computer modelling and fluid dynamics to biological systems. Emphasis is placed on demonstrating the important roles that mathematical theory and computer technology play in the medical arena. This text focuses on the respiratory system and includes such topics as morphology of the human extrathoracic airways, the morphology of the lung and stochastic modelling of particle deposition in the human lung.

Vapor Transport and Aerosol Dynamics in the Respiratory Airways

Author : Geng Tian
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (742 download)

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Book Synopsis Vapor Transport and Aerosol Dynamics in the Respiratory Airways by : Geng Tian

Download or read book Vapor Transport and Aerosol Dynamics in the Respiratory Airways written by Geng Tian and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Predicting vapor transport and aerosol dynamics in the respiratory airways is important for analyzing both environmental exposure and respiratory drug delivery. A large number of analytical models, computational studies, and experiments on vapor and aerosol transport in the respiratory tract have been conducted previously. However, a number of critical questions remain unanswered. In this study, computational fluid dynamics (CFD) is primarily employed with frequent comparisons to existing and new experimental data sets to address previously unanswered issues related to the transport of vapors and aerosol in the respiratory tract. The three objectives of this study are further described below. Objective 1: A CFD model was developed to predict the transient absorption of inhaled vapors in the respiratory tract. Results indicated that transient absorption can significantly influence the transport and uptake of vapors in the walls of the conducting airways. Objective 2: The concept of enhanced condensational growth (ECG) applied to respiratory drug delivery was tested in a representative airway model extending from the oral cavity to the end of the tracheobronchial (TB) airways. Results indicated that ECG is an effective method to provide near full lung retention of the aerosol. The CFD results also indicated that the ECG delivery approach under transient inhalation conditions increased aerosol deposition in the TB airways by only a small amount, as compared with steady state conditions. Objective 3: The effect of transient waveforms on the transport and deposition of pharmaceutical aerosols from inhalers in the upper airways was considered. Results indicated that the CFD model predictions matched the in vitro experiments to a high degree. The CFD results also indicated that it was critical to consider transient inhalation effects when assessing aerosol deposition. The stochastic individual path (SIP) modeling approach was then introduced and implemented to evaluate the transport and deposition of pharmaceutical aerosols from inhalers in medium and small TB airways. Results indicated that steady state inhalation could be used to predict deposition efficiencies in the TB airways between the 4th branch (B4) and the bronchioles (B15).

Computational Fluid and Particle Dynamics in the Human Respiratory System

Author : Jiyuan Tu
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9400744889
Total Pages : 383 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (7 download)

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Book Synopsis Computational Fluid and Particle Dynamics in the Human Respiratory System by : Jiyuan Tu

Download or read book Computational Fluid and Particle Dynamics in the Human Respiratory System written by Jiyuan Tu and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-09-17 with total page 383 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Traditional research methodologies in the human respiratory system have always been challenging due to their invasive nature. Recent advances in medical imaging and computational fluid dynamics (CFD) have accelerated this research. This book compiles and details recent advances in the modelling of the respiratory system for researchers, engineers, scientists, and health practitioners. It breaks down the complexities of this field and provides both students and scientists with an introduction and starting point to the physiology of the respiratory system, fluid dynamics and advanced CFD modeling tools. In addition to a brief introduction to the physics of the respiratory system and an overview of computational methods, the book contains best-practice guidelines for establishing high-quality computational models and simulations. Inspiration for new simulations can be gained through innovative case studies as well as hands-on practice using pre-made computational code. Last but not least, students and researchers are presented the latest biomedical research activities, and the computational visualizations will enhance their understanding of physiological functions of the respiratory system.

Inhalation Aerosols

Author : Anthony J. Hickey
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1351660527
Total Pages : 417 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (516 download)

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Book Synopsis Inhalation Aerosols by : Anthony J. Hickey

Download or read book Inhalation Aerosols written by Anthony J. Hickey and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2019-03-21 with total page 417 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Inhalation aerosols continue to be the basis for successful lung therapy for several diseases, with therapeutic strategies and the range of technology significantly evolving in recent years. In response, this third edition takes a new approach to reflect the close integration of technology with its application. After briefly presenting the general considerations that apply to aerosol inhalation, the central section of the book uses the focus on disease and therapeutic agents to illustrate the application of specific technologies. The final integrated strategies section draws the major points from the applications for disease targets and drug products.

Numerical Analysis of Respiratory Aerosol Deposition

Author : Samir C. Vinchurkar
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 470 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Numerical Analysis of Respiratory Aerosol Deposition by : Samir C. Vinchurkar

Download or read book Numerical Analysis of Respiratory Aerosol Deposition written by Samir C. Vinchurkar and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page 470 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The dynamics of particle laden flows are integral to the analysis of toxic particle deposition and medical respiratory aerosol delivery. Computational fluid-particle dynamics (CFPD) can play a critical role in developing a better understanding of particle laden flows, especially in a number of under-explored areas. The applications considered in this study include both the numerical aspects and the physical phenomena of respiratory aerosol transport. Objective I: Considering the effects of mesh type and grid convergence, four commonly implemented mesh styles were applied to a double bifurcation respiratory geometry and tested for flow patterns and aerosol deposition. Results indicated that the mesh style employed had a significant effect on the transport and deposition of aerosols with hexahedral meshes being most accurate. Objective II: In order to evaluate the effects of bronchoconstriction under exhalation conditions, normal and constricted pediatric airway models were considered. Results include (i) a significant increase in deposition for constricted airways, and (ii) a novel correlation for deposition during exhalation based on the Dean and Stokes numbers. Objective IIIa: Considering evaluation of an aerosol size sampler, an eight-stage Andersen cascade impactor (ACI) was numerically analyzed. The numerical simulations indicated high non-uniformity and recirculation in the flow field. Numerical predictions of retention fraction matched well with existing experiments (0.5 - 11% error). Objective IIIb: As an extension to this study, numerical predictions of electrostatic charge effects on aerosol transport and deposition in the ACI were presented. Charges consistent with standard pharmaceutical pressurized metered dose inhalers and dry powder inhalers were considered. The numerical predictions indicated that charged aerosols deposit as if they were 5 - 85% larger due to electrostatic effects. Applications of the studies considered include (i) quantitative guidance in selecting numerical mesh styles and development of standard grid convergence criteria, (ii) the development of more accurate whole-lung deposition models that better evaluate exhalation conditions, (iii) improvements in the design of pharmaceutical assessment and delivery devices, and (vi) correction values to account for electrostatic charge on pharmaceutical aerosols.

Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer

Author : Ryoichi Amano
Publisher : WIT Press
ISBN 13 : 1845641442
Total Pages : 513 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (456 download)

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Book Synopsis Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer by : Ryoichi Amano

Download or read book Computational Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer written by Ryoichi Amano and published by WIT Press. This book was released on 2011 with total page 513 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Heat transfer and fluid flow issues are of great significance and this state-of-the-art edited book with reference to new and innovative numerical methods will make a contribution for researchers in academia and research organizations, as well as industrial scientists and college students. The book provides comprehensive chapters on research and developments in emerging topics in computational methods, e.g., the finite volume method, finite element method as well as turbulent flow computational methods. Fundamentals of the numerical methods, comparison of various higher-order schemes for convection-diffusion terms, turbulence modeling, the pressure-velocity coupling, mesh generation and the handling of arbitrary geometries are presented. Results from engineering applications are provided. Chapters have been co-authored by eminent researchers.

Thermo-fluid Dynamics of Two-Phase Flow

Author : Mamoru Ishii
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 0387291873
Total Pages : 462 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (872 download)

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Book Synopsis Thermo-fluid Dynamics of Two-Phase Flow by : Mamoru Ishii

Download or read book Thermo-fluid Dynamics of Two-Phase Flow written by Mamoru Ishii and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2006-09-28 with total page 462 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book has been written for graduate students, scientists and engineers who need in-depth theoretical foundations to solve two-phase problems in various technological systems. Based on extensive research experiences focused on the fundamental physics of two-phase flow, the authors present the detailed theoretical foundation of multi-phase flow thermo-fluid dynamics as they apply to a variety of scenarios, including nuclear reactor transient and accident analysis, energy systems, power generation systems and even space propulsion.

Kinetic Theory of Granular Gases

Author : Nikolai V. Brilliantov
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0199588139
Total Pages : 343 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (995 download)

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Book Synopsis Kinetic Theory of Granular Gases by : Nikolai V. Brilliantov

Download or read book Kinetic Theory of Granular Gases written by Nikolai V. Brilliantov and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2010-11-11 with total page 343 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In contrast to molecular gases (for example, air), the particles of granular gases, such as a cloud of dust, lose part of their kinetic energy when they collide, giving rise to many exciting physical properties. The book provides a self-contained introduction to the theory of granular gases for advanced undergraduates and beginning graduates.

Computational Techniques for Fluid Dynamics 1

Author : Clive A.J. Fletcher
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 364258229X
Total Pages : 412 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (425 download)

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Book Synopsis Computational Techniques for Fluid Dynamics 1 by : Clive A.J. Fletcher

Download or read book Computational Techniques for Fluid Dynamics 1 written by Clive A.J. Fletcher and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-12-06 with total page 412 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This well-known 2-volume textbook provides senior undergraduate and postgraduate engineers, scientists and applied mathematicians with the specific techniques, and the framework to develop skills in using the techniques in the various branches of computational fluid dynamics. A solutions manual to the exercises is in preparation.

Fluid Mechanics for Engineers

Author : Meinhard T. Schobeiri
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3642115942
Total Pages : 517 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (421 download)

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Book Synopsis Fluid Mechanics for Engineers by : Meinhard T. Schobeiri

Download or read book Fluid Mechanics for Engineers written by Meinhard T. Schobeiri and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2010-03-27 with total page 517 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The contents of this book covers the material required in the Fluid Mechanics Graduate Core Course (MEEN-621) and in Advanced Fluid Mechanics, a Ph. D-level elective course (MEEN-622), both of which I have been teaching at Texas A&M University for the past two decades. While there are numerous undergraduate fluid mechanics texts on the market for engineering students and instructors to choose from, there are only limited texts that comprehensively address the particular needs of graduate engineering fluid mechanics courses. To complement the lecture materials, the instructors more often recommend several texts, each of which treats special topics of fluid mechanics. This circumstance and the need to have a textbook that covers the materials needed in the above courses gave the impetus to provide the graduate engineering community with a coherent textbook that comprehensively addresses their needs for an advanced fluid mechanics text. Although this text book is primarily aimed at mechanical engineering students, it is equally suitable for aerospace engineering, civil engineering, other engineering disciplines, and especially those practicing professionals who perform CFD-simulation on a routine basis and would like to know more about the underlying physics of the commercial codes they use. Furthermore, it is suitable for self study, provided that the reader has a sufficient knowledge of calculus and differential equations. In the past, because of the lack of advanced computational capability, the subject of fluid mechanics was artificially subdivided into inviscid, viscous (laminar, turbulent), incompressible, compressible, subsonic, supersonic and hypersonic flows.

The Mechanics of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Aerosols

Author : Warren H. Finlay
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0081027869
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (81 download)

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Book Synopsis The Mechanics of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Aerosols by : Warren H. Finlay

Download or read book The Mechanics of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Aerosols written by Warren H. Finlay and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2019-06-01 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Mechanics of Inhaled Pharmaceutical Aerosols: An Introduction, Second Edition provides a concise, but thorough exposition of fundamental concepts in the field of pharmaceutical aerosols. This revised edition will allow researchers in the field to gain a thorough understanding of the field from first principles, allowing them to understand, design, develop and improve inhaled pharmaceutical aerosol devices and therapies. Chapters consider mechanics and deposition, specifically in the respiratory tract, while others discuss the mechanics associated with the three existing types of pharmaceutical inhalation devices. This text will be very useful for academics and for courses taught at both undergraduate and graduate levels. Because of the interdisciplinary nature of this book, it will also serve a wide audience that includes engineers and scientists involved with inhaled aerosol therapies. - Provides a concise, but thorough exposition of fundamental concepts in the field of pharmaceutical aerosols - Allows researchers in the field to gain an up-to-date, thorough understanding of the field from first principles - Introduces the pharmaceutical aerosols field to the many engineers and scientists entering the area

Computational Fluid-Particle Dynamics Modeling for Unconventional Inhaled Aerosols in Human Respiratory Systems

Author : Yu Feng
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (115 download)

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Book Synopsis Computational Fluid-Particle Dynamics Modeling for Unconventional Inhaled Aerosols in Human Respiratory Systems by : Yu Feng

Download or read book Computational Fluid-Particle Dynamics Modeling for Unconventional Inhaled Aerosols in Human Respiratory Systems written by Yu Feng and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The awareness is growing of health hazards and pharmaceutical benefits of micro-/nano-aerosol particles which are mostly nonspherical and hygroscopic, and categorized as "unconventional" vs. solid spheres. Accurate and realistic numerical models will significantly contribute to answering public health questions. In this chapter, fundamentals and future trends of computational fluid-particle dynamics (CFPD) models for lung aerosol dynamics are discussed, emphasizing the underlying physics to simulate unconventional inhaled aerosols such as fibers, droplets, and vapors. Standard simulation procedures are presented, including reconstruction of the human respiratory system, CFPD model formulation, finite-volume mesh generation, et cetera Case studies for fiber and droplet transport and deposition in lung are also provided. Furthermore, challenges and future directions are discussed to develop next-generation models. The ultimate goal is to establish a roadmap to link different numerical models, and to build the framework of a new multiscale numerical model, which will extend exposure and lung deposition predictions to health endpoints, e.g., tissue and delivered doses, by calculating absorption and translocation into alveolar regions and systemic regions using discrete element method (DEM), lattice Boltzmann method (LBM), and/or physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) models. It will enable simulations of extremely complex airflow-vapor-particle-structure dynamics in the entire human respiratory system at detailed levels.

Aerosols Handbook

Author : Lev S. Ruzer
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1439855102
Total Pages : 669 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (398 download)

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Book Synopsis Aerosols Handbook by : Lev S. Ruzer

Download or read book Aerosols Handbook written by Lev S. Ruzer and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2012-08-15 with total page 669 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With the rapid growth of the nanotechnology industry, the need to understand the biological effects of aerosol exposure has become increasingly important. Featuring contributions by leading experts in the field, Aerosols Handbook: Measurement, Dosimetry, and Health Effects, Second Edition offers an up-to-date overview of many aspects of aerosols, from properties to health effects and epidemiology. Covering indoor, outdoor, industrial, medical, pharmaceutical, and radioactive aerosols, this book explores aerosol dosimetry by defining terms such as exposure and dose. In addition, it looks at nanometer particles, the mechanism of aerosol deposition in the lungs, and modeling deposition with a corresponding uncertainty in risk assessment. The text also emphasizes the importance of accurate aerosol measurements, particularly breathing zone exposure assessments. Examining radioactive aerosols, the book discusses lessons learned from nuclear accidents, radon and thoron, and long-lived radionuclides in the environment. It brings together research on both radioactive and nonradioactive aerosols, supplying readers with a more complete view of how aerosols behave in the lungs. New in This Edition Five new chapters that address the safety of nanomaterials, dealing with nanoparticle cell penetration, high aspect ratio nanomaterials, nanoaerosols in drug delivery, risk assessment, and health effects New chapters on atmospheric pollution related to climate change, chemical analyses of particle filter deposits, and classical nucleation theory New data on measurement, dosimetry, and health effects Updated throughout, this second edition continues to be an essential resource for those who study exposure, dosages, and toxicity to develop treatments for exposure, reduce air pollution, and establish better safety regulations, particularly in industries using nanotechnologies.

Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics to Aerosol Sampling and Concentration

Author : Shishan Hu
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (69 download)

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Book Synopsis Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics to Aerosol Sampling and Concentration by : Shishan Hu

Download or read book Application of Computational Fluid Dynamics to Aerosol Sampling and Concentration written by Shishan Hu and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An understanding of gas-liquid two-phase interactions, aerosol particle deposition, and heat transfer is needed. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) is becoming a powerful tool to predict aerosol behavior for related design work. In this study, FLUENT 6 is used to analyze the performance of aerosol sampling and concentration devices including inlet components (impactors), cyclones, and virtual impactors. The k--[omega] model was used to predict particle behavior in Inline Cone Impactor (ICI) and Jet-in-Well impactor (JIW). Simulation provided excellent agreement with experimental test results for a compact ICI. In the JIW, compound impaction is shown to cause the device to have a smaller cutpoint Stokes number than the single impaction unit. The size ratio of the well-to-jet was analyzed to find its influence on the total and side collections. Simulation is used to analyze liquid film, flow structure, particle collection, pressure drop, and heating requirements for a bioaerosol sampling cyclone. A volume of fluid model is used to predict water film in an earlier cyclone. A shell-volume is developed to simulate thin liquid film in large device. For the upgraded version cyclone, simulation is verified to successfully predict cutpoint and pressure drop. A narrowing-jet is shown to describe the flow evolution inside the axial flow cyclone. Turbulent heat transfer coefficients and surface temperatures are analyzed and heaters are designed for this cyclone. A double-outlet cyclone was designed and its pressure drop decreased about 25%, compared with a single-outlet cyclone. A scaled-down 100 L/min cyclone was also designed and tested based on the 1250 L/min unit. CFD is used to design a Circumferential Slot Virtual Impactor (CSVI) which is used for concentration of bioaerosol particles. Simulations showed a 3-D unstable flow inside an earlier version CSVI, which could explain acoustic noise and particle loss observed in the experiment. A smaller CSVI unit was designed using simulation and its flow was shown to be stable. CFD was then used to analyze the wake flow downstream of the posts to reduce particle losses and eliminate flow instabilities caused by wakes. A successful solution, moving the posts outside was developed by the use of CFD.

Particle-Lung Interactions

Author : Peter Gehr
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1420072579
Total Pages : 324 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Particle-Lung Interactions by : Peter Gehr

Download or read book Particle-Lung Interactions written by Peter Gehr and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2009-09-25 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Written by an expanded team of leading international scientists, the second edition thoroughly investigates research and therapies for managing adverse physiological effects of air-borne particles on the respiratory tract. The book examines the lung as the gateway for particle damage to organs outside the respiratory system and provide the informat

Fluid Dynamics and Transport of Droplets and Sprays

Author : W. A. Sirignano
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 0521884896
Total Pages : 481 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (218 download)

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Book Synopsis Fluid Dynamics and Transport of Droplets and Sprays by : W. A. Sirignano

Download or read book Fluid Dynamics and Transport of Droplets and Sprays written by W. A. Sirignano and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2010-01-11 with total page 481 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book discusses the theoretical foundations of spray and droplet applications relevant to the technology for active control of sprays applied to new products and applications, improved product performance, cost reductions, and improved environmental outcomes. It also covers theory related to power and propulsion; materials processing and manufacturing technologies including droplet-based net form processing, coating, and painting; medication; pesticides and insecticides; and other consumer uses.