Collectors Guide To Fort Payne Crinoids And Blastoids

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Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids

Author : William W. Morgan
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253058244
Total Pages : 183 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids by : William W. Morgan

Download or read book Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids written by William W. Morgan and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2021-11-19 with total page 183 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids is the first comprehensive guide for identifying the fossils of echinoderms from hundreds of millions of years ago, when North America was covered by a warm, equatorial sea. Crinoids and blastoids, echinoderms (the same family of marine animals to include starfish, sea urchins, and sand dollars) from the Fort Payne Formation in Kentucky, are rarely seen at gem, mineral, and fossil shows, nor are they regularly displayed at major museums. By combining high-quality color photographs and an accompanying descriptive text, William W. Morgan provides the first comprehensive identification guide to these fascinating fossils. Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids features photographs, often offering more than one view, of the best-quality specimens curated in the Smithsonian and other prominent invertebrate fossil museums. Morgan includes photographs that are unlabeled so that readers can test themselves to see whether they can differentiate some of the more subtle features that may be necessary for accurate identification.

Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids

Author : William Morgan
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253058252
Total Pages : 260 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids by : William Morgan

Download or read book Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids written by William Morgan and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2021-11-19 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids is the first comprehensive guide for identifying the fossils of echinoderms from hundreds of millions of years ago, when North America was covered by a warm, equatorial sea. Crinoids and blastoids, echinoderms (the same family of marine animals to include starfish, sea urchins, and sand dollars) from the Fort Payne Formation in Kentucky, are rarely seen at gem, mineral, and fossil shows, nor are they regularly displayed at major museums. By combining high-quality color photographs and an accompanying descriptive text, William W. Morgan provides the first comprehensive identification guide to these fascinating fossils. Collector's Guide to Fort Payne Crinoids and Blastoids features photographs, often offering more than one view, of the best-quality specimens curated in the Smithsonian and other prominent invertebrate fossil museums. Morgan includes photographs that are unlabeled so that readers can test themselves to see whether they can differentiate some of the more subtle features that may be necessary for accurate identification.

Kentucky Agate

Author : Roland L. McIntosh
Publisher : University Press of Kentucky
ISBN 13 : 0813142741
Total Pages : 302 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (131 download)

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Book Synopsis Kentucky Agate by : Roland L. McIntosh

Download or read book Kentucky Agate written by Roland L. McIntosh and published by University Press of Kentucky. This book was released on 2013-10-10 with total page 302 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This informative and fully illustrated volume explores the untold story of agate gemstones hidden in Kentucky’s scenic Knobs Region. With their fine grain and rich assortment of colors, agate stones are coveted by collectors and becoming rarer across the globe. Some of the most beautiful specimens in the world have been found in the rugged terrain of eastern Kentucky. In Kentucky Agate, authors Roland L. McIntosh and Warren H. Anderson reveal the beauty and diversity of this sought-after stone with hundreds of color photographs. Kentucky Agate also reveals locations where agate may be found, offering maps of the region surrounding the city of Irvine, Kentucky, including parts of Estill, Powell, Jackson, Menifee, Madison, and Lee counties. With detailed photographs revealing aspects of the rock not visible to the naked eye, this book also provides fascinating information on the history, geology, chemistry, and formation of the mineral.

The Desert Bones

Author : Jamale Ijouiher
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253063337
Total Pages : 448 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis The Desert Bones by : Jamale Ijouiher

Download or read book The Desert Bones written by Jamale Ijouiher and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2022-11-22 with total page 448 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An essential introduction to the age of dinosaurs in Africa. Once Africa was referred to as the ''Lost World of the dinosaur era,'' so poorly known were its ancient flora and fauna. Worse still, many priceless fossil specimens from the Sahara Desert were destroyed during the Second World War. Fortunately, in the twentieth-first century, more researchers are now working in north Africa than ever before and making fascinating discoveries such as the dinosaur Spinosaurus. Based on a decade of study, The Desert Bones brings the world of African dinosaurs fully into the light. Jamale Ijouiher skillfully draws on the latest research and knowledge about paleoecology to paint a compelling and comprehensive portrait of the mid-Cretaceous in North Africa.

Patrons of Paleontology

Author : Jane P. Davidson
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 025303356X
Total Pages : 259 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Patrons of Paleontology by : Jane P. Davidson

Download or read book Patrons of Paleontology written by Jane P. Davidson and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2017-08-21 with total page 259 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, North American and European governments generously funded the discoveries of such famous paleontologists and geologists as Henry de la Beche, William Buckland, Richard Owen, Thomas Hawkins, Edward Drinker Cope, O. C. Marsh, and Charles W. Gilmore. In Patrons of Paleontology, Jane Davidson explores the motivation behind this rush to fund exploration, arguing that eagerness to discover strategic resources like coal deposits was further fueled by patrons who had a genuine passion for paleontology and the fascinating creatures that were being unearthed. These early decades of government support shaped the way the discipline grew, creating practices and enabling discoveries that continue to affect paleontology today.

Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology

Author : J. Michael Parrish
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253009472
Total Pages : 313 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology by : J. Michael Parrish

Download or read book Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology written by J. Michael Parrish and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2013-07-05 with total page 313 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Drawn from a 2005 international symposium, these essays explore current tyrannosaurid current research and discoveries regarding Tyrannosaurus rex. The opening of an exhibit focused on “Jane,” a beautifully preserved tyrannosaur collected by the Burpee Museum of Natural History, was the occasion for an international symposium on tyrannosaur paleobiology. This volume, drawn from the symposium, includes studies of the tyrannosaurids Chingkankousaurus fragilis and “Sir William” and the generic status of Nanotyrannus; theropod teeth, pedal proportions, brain size, and craniocervical function; soft tissue reconstruction, including that of “Jane”; paleopathology and tyrannosaurid claws; dating the “Jane” site; and tyrannosaur feeding and hunting strategies. Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology highlights the far ranging and vital state of current tyrannosaurid dinosaur research and discovery. “Despite being discovered over 100 years ago, Tyrannosaurus rex and its kin still inspire researchers to ask fundamental questions about what the best known dinosaur was like as a living, breathing animal. Tyrannosaurid Paleobiology present a series of wide-ranging and innovative studies that cover diverse topics such as how tyrannosaurs attacked and dismembered prey, the shapes and sizes of feet and brains, and what sorts of injuries individuals sustained and lived with. There are also examinations of the diversity of tyrannosaurs, determinations of exactly when different kinds lived and died, and what goes into making a museum exhibit featuring tyrannosaurs. This volume clearly shows that there is much more to the study of dinosaurs than just digging up and cataloguing old bones.” —Donald M. Henderson, Royal Tyrrell Museum of Palaeontology

Cambrian Ocean World

Author : John Foster
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253011884
Total Pages : 457 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Cambrian Ocean World by : John Foster

Download or read book Cambrian Ocean World written by John Foster and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2014-06-06 with total page 457 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume, aimed at the general reader, presents life and times of the amazing animals that inhabited Earth more than 500 million years ago. The Cambrian Period was a critical time in Earth's history. During this immense span of time nearly every modern group of animals appeared. Although life had been around for more than 2 million millennia, Cambrian rocks preserve the record of the first appearance of complex animals with eyes, protective skeletons, antennae, and complex ecologies. Grazing, predation, and multi-tiered ecosystems with animals living in, on, or above the sea floor became common. The cascade of interaction led to an ever-increasing diversification of animal body types. By the end of the period, the ancestors of sponges, corals, jellyfish, worms, mollusks, brachiopods, arthropods, echinoderms, and vertebrates were all in place. The evidence of this Cambrian "explosion" is preserved in rocks all over the world, including North America, where the seemingly strange animals of the period are preserved in exquisite detail in deposits such as the Burgess Shale in British Columbia. Cambrian Ocean World tells the story of what is, for us, the most important period in our planet's long history.

Turtles as Hopeful Monsters

Author : Olivier Rieppel
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253025079
Total Pages : 216 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Turtles as Hopeful Monsters by : Olivier Rieppel

Download or read book Turtles as Hopeful Monsters written by Olivier Rieppel and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2017-03-13 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Where do turtles hail from? Why and how did they acquire shells? These questions have spurred heated debate and intense research for more than two hundred years. Brilliantly weaving evidence from the latest paleontological discoveries with an accessible, incisive look at different theories of biological evolution and their proponents, Turtles as Hopeful Monsters tells the fascinating evolutionary story of the shelled reptiles. Paleontologist Olivier Rieppel traces the evolution of turtles from over 220 million years ago, examining closely the relationship of turtles to other reptiles and charting the development of the shell. Turtle issues fuel a debate between proponents of gradual evolutionary change and authors favoring change through bursts and leaps of macromutation. The first book-length popular history of its type, this indispensable resource is an engaging read for all those fascinated by this ubiquitous and uniquely shaped reptile.

The Bare Bones

Author : Matthew F. Bonnan
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253018412
Total Pages : 545 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis The Bare Bones by : Matthew F. Bonnan

Download or read book The Bare Bones written by Matthew F. Bonnan and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2016-02-15 with total page 545 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: What can we learn about the evolution of jaws from a pair of scissors? How does the flight of a tennis ball help explain how fish overcome drag? What do a spacesuit and a chicken egg have in common? Highlighting the fascinating twists and turns of evolution across more than 540 million years, paleobiologist Matthew Bonnan uses everyday objects to explain the emergence and adaptation of the vertebrate skeleton. What can camera lenses tell us about the eyes of marine reptiles? How does understanding what prevents a coffee mug from spilling help us understand the posture of dinosaurs? The answers to these and other intriguing questions illustrate how scientists have pieced together the history of vertebrates from their bare bones. With its engaging and informative text, plus more than 200 illustrative diagrams created by the author, The Bare Bones is an unconventional and reader-friendly introduction to the skeleton as an evolving machine.

Plants in Mesozoic Time

Author : Carole T. Gee
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253001994
Total Pages : 420 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Plants in Mesozoic Time by : Carole T. Gee

Download or read book Plants in Mesozoic Time written by Carole T. Gee and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2010-07-16 with total page 420 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Plants in Mesozoic Time showcases the latest research of broad botanical and paleontological interest from the world's experts on Mesozoic plant life. Each chapter covers a special aspect of a particular plant group -- ranging from horsetails to ginkgophytes, from cycads to conifers -- and relates it to key innovations in structure, phylogenetic relationships, the Mesozoic flora, or to animals such as plant-eating dinosaurs. The book's geographic scope ranges from Antarctica and Argentina to the western interior of North America, with studies on the reconstruction of the Late Jurassic vegetation of the Morrison Formation and on fossil angiosperm lianas from Late Cretaceous deposits in Utah and New Mexico. The volume also includes cutting-edge studies on the evolutionary developmental biology ("evo-devo") of Mesozoic forests, the phylogenetic analysis of the still enigmatic bennettitaleans, and the genetic developmental controls of the oldest flowers in the fossil record.

Sabertooth

Author : Mauricio Antón
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253010497
Total Pages : 270 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Sabertooth by : Mauricio Antón

Download or read book Sabertooth written by Mauricio Antón and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2013-11-22 with total page 270 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “A unique review of the many unusual and nearly worldwide occurrences of sabertooths and their relatives over more than 50 million years.” —Choice With their spectacularly enlarged canines, sabertooth cats are among the most popular of prehistoric animals, yet it is surprising how little information about them is available for the curious layperson. What’s more, there were other sabertooths that were not cats, animals with exotic names like nimravids, barbourofelids, and thylacosmilids. Some were no taller than a domestic cat, others were larger than a lion, and some were as weird as their names suggest. Sabertooths continue to pose questions even for specialists. What did they look like? How did they use their spectacular canine teeth? And why did they finally go extinct? In this visual and intellectual treat of a book, Mauricio Antón tells their story in words and pictures, all scrupulously based on the latest scientific research. The book is a glorious wedding of science and art that celebrates the remarkable diversity of the life of the not-so-distant past. “The best paleomammal artist working today [and] his knowledge of sabertooths and their evolution is second to none.” —Lars Werdelin, Swedish Museum of Natural History “Mauricio Antón is one of the best paleoartists. What sets him apart is the fact that he is a great paleontologist in his own right. Probably no one else has thought more about sabertooth than he has. As a result, his illustrations often demonstrate a particular behavior of the extinct mammal that he has personally researched or display a unique point of view.” —Xiaoming Wang, Natural History Museum of Los Angeles

Fossils of the Carpathian Region

Author : István Fozy
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253009871
Total Pages : 508 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Fossils of the Carpathian Region by : István Fozy

Download or read book Fossils of the Carpathian Region written by István Fozy and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2013-12-18 with total page 508 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive review of the fossil record of the Carpathian Basin. Fossils of the Carpathian Region describes and illustrates the region’s fossils, recounts their history, and tells the stories of key people involved in paleontological research in the area. In addition to covering all the important fossils of this region, special attention is given to rare finds and complete skeletons. The region’s fossils range from tiny foraminifera to the Transylvanian dinosaurs and mammals of the Carpathian Basin. The book also gives nonspecialists the opportunity to gain a basic understanding of paleontology. Sidebars present brief biographies of important figures and explain how to collect, prepare, and interpret fossils. “An excellently written scientific book. . . . The good illustrations are an incentive to start reading and dive into the wide area covered by two experts in their respective fields. . . . A rich source of otherwise not published background knowledge on the paleontology and geology of the region.” —Christian A. Meyer, Natural History Museum, Basel “Fossils of the Carpathian Region . . . is beautifully produced with high-quality color illustrations throughout and an exhaustive bibliography and index. . . . Highly recommended.” —Choice “This book fills a gap in the geological texts on the Carpathians, especially in Hungary, and offers a valuable wealth of geological-paleontological and scientific-historical information from the Ordovician to the Pleistocene. This extensive and relatively inexpensive work is an unrivaled recommendation for amateurs and amateur geologists / paleontologists.” —Zentralblatt für Geologie und Paläontologie [translated from German]

Ice Age Cave Faunas of North America

Author : Blaine W. Schubert
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780253342683
Total Pages : 400 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (426 download)

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Book Synopsis Ice Age Cave Faunas of North America by : Blaine W. Schubert

Download or read book Ice Age Cave Faunas of North America written by Blaine W. Schubert and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2003-11-10 with total page 400 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book gathers the findings of a number of studies on North American cave paleontology. Although not intended to be all-inclusive, Ice Age Cave Faunas of North America contains contributions that range from overviews of the significance of cave fossils to reports about new localities and studies of specific vertebrate groups. These essays describe how cave remains record the evolutionary patterns of organisms and their biogeography, how they can help reconstruct past ecosystems and climatic fluctuations, how they provide an important record of the evolution of modern ecosystems, and even how some of these caves contain traces of human activity. The book's eclectic nature should appeal to students, professional and amateur paleontologists, biologists, geologists, speleologists, and cavers. The contributors are Ticul Alvarez, Joaquin Arroyo-Cabrales, Christopher J. Bell, Larry L. Coats, Jennifer Glennon, Wulf Gose, Frederick Grady, Russell Wm. Graham, Timothy H. Heaton, Carmen J. Jans-Langel, Ernest L. Lundelius, Jr., H. Gregory McDonald, Jim I. Mead, Oscar J. Polaco, Blaine W. Schubert, Holmes A. Semken, Jr., and Alisa J. Winkler.

Dinosaur Tracks from Brazil

Author : Giuseppe Leonardi
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253057248
Total Pages : 463 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Dinosaur Tracks from Brazil by : Giuseppe Leonardi

Download or read book Dinosaur Tracks from Brazil written by Giuseppe Leonardi and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2021-08-24 with total page 463 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Dinosaur Tracks from Brazil is the first full-length study of dinosaurs in Brazil. Some 500 dinosaur trackways from the Cretaceous period still remain in the Rio do Peixe basins of Brazil, making it one of the largest trackways in the world. Veteran paleontologists Giuseppe Leonardi and Ismar de Souza Carvalho painstakingly document and analyze each track found at 37 individual sites and at approximately 96 stratigraphic levels. Richly illustrated and containing a wealth of data, Leonardi and de Souza Carvalho brilliantly reconstruct the taxonomic groups of the dinosaurs from the area and show how they moved across the alluvial fans, meandering rivers, and shallow lakes of ancient Gondwana. Dinosaur Tracks from Brazil is essential reading for paleontologists.

Rhinoceros Giants

Author : Donald R. Prothero
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253008190
Total Pages : 159 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Rhinoceros Giants by : Donald R. Prothero

Download or read book Rhinoceros Giants written by Donald R. Prothero and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2013-05-09 with total page 159 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A book for everyone fascinated by the huge beasts that once roamed the earth, Rhinoceros Giants: The Paleobiology of the Indricotheres, introduces a prime candidate for the largest land mammal that ever lived - the giant hornless rhinoceros, Indricotherium. These massive animals lived in Asia and Eurasia for more than 14 million years, about 37 to 23 million years ago. They had skulls 2 metres long, stood over 7 meters at the shoulder, and were nearly twice as heavy as the largest elephant ever recorded, tipping the scales at 20,000 kg. Fortunately, the big brutes were vegetarians, although they must have made predators think twice before trying to bring them down. In this book for lovers of ancient creatures great and small, Donald R. Prothero tells their story, from their discovery by palaeontologists just a century ago to the latest research on how they lived and died, with some interesting side trips along the way.

Hadrosaurs

Author : David A. Eberth
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253013909
Total Pages : 640 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Hadrosaurs by : David A. Eberth

Download or read book Hadrosaurs written by David A. Eberth and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2014-11-05 with total page 640 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive study of the Late Cretaceous, duck-billed dinosaur, featuring insights on its origins, anatomy, and more. Hadrosaurs—also known as duck-billed dinosaurs—are abundant in the fossil record. With their unique complex jaws and teeth perfectly suited to shred and chew plants, they flourished on Earth in remarkable diversity during the Late Cretaceous. So ubiquitous are their remains that we have learned more about dinosaurian paleobiology and paleoecology from hadrosaurs than we have from any other group. In recent years, hadrosaurs have been in the spotlight. Researchers around the world have been studying new specimens and new taxa seeking to expand and clarify our knowledge of these marvelous beasts. This volume presents the results of an international symposium on hadrosaurs, sponsored by the Royal Tyrrell Museum and the Royal Ontario Museum, where scientists and students gathered to share their research and their passion for duck-billed dinosaurs. A uniquely comprehensive treatment of hadrosaurs, the book encompasses not only the well-known hadrosaurids proper, but also Hadrosaouroidea, allowing the former group to be evaluated in a broader perspective. The 36 chapters are divided into six sections—an overview, new insights into hadrosaur origins, hadrosaurid anatomy and variation, biogeography and biostratigraphy, function and growth, and preservation, tracks, and traces—followed by an afterword by Jack Horner. “Well designed, handsome and fantastically well edited (credit there to Patricia Ralrick), congratulations are deserved to the editors for pulling together a vast amount of content, and doing it well. The book contains a huge quantity of information on these dinosaurs.” —Darren Naish, co-author of Tetrapod Zoology, Scientific American “Hadrosaurs have not had the wide publicity of their flesh-eating cousins, the theropods, but this remarkable dinosaur group offers unique opportunities to explore aspects of palaeobiology such as growth and sexual dimorphism. In a comprehensive collection of papers, all the hadrosaur experts of the world present their latest work, exploring topics as diverse as taxonomy and stratigraphy, locomotion and skin colour.” —Michael Benton, University of Bristol

Noah's Ravens

Author : James O. Farlow
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253037166
Total Pages : 656 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis Noah's Ravens by : James O. Farlow

Download or read book Noah's Ravens written by James O. Farlow and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2018-10-08 with total page 656 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How can the tracks of dinosaurs best be interpreted and used to reconstruct them? In many Mesozoic sedimentary rock formations, fossilized footprints of bipedal, three-toed (tridactyl) dinosaurs are preserved in huge numbers, often with few or no skeletons. Such tracks sometimes provide the only clues to the former presence of dinosaurs, but their interpretation can be challenging: How different in size and shape can footprints be and yet have been made by the same kind of dinosaur? How similar can they be and yet have been made by different kinds of dinosaurs? To what extent can tridactyl dinosaur footprints serve as proxies for the biodiversity of their makers? Profusely illustrated and meticulously researched, Noah's Ravens quantitatively explores a variety of approaches to interpreting the tracks, carefully examining within-species and across-species variability in foot and footprint shape in nonavian dinosaurs and their close living relatives. The results help decipher one of the world's most important assemblages of fossil dinosaur tracks, found in sedimentary rocks deposited in ancient rift valleys of eastern North America. Those often beautifully preserved tracks were among the first studied by paleontologists, and they were initially interpreted as having been made by big birds—one of which was jokingly identified as Noah's legendary raven.