Zhang Legacy

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Zhang Legacy

Author : Wendy COTTIERS
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 465 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (98 download)

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Book Synopsis Zhang Legacy by : Wendy COTTIERS

Download or read book Zhang Legacy written by Wendy COTTIERS and published by . This book was released on 2021-10-20 with total page 465 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To Cottier's knowledge, no one has built a five-star luxury resort, including a landing pad with a full-service bar and Michelin restaurant in outer Space, and that sparked an idea: What if a billionaire resort developer teams up with the perfect family that can guarantee a lifetime of endless, infinity? No death, no illness, no more sadness on Earth, just a beautiful life in Space spent with friends and loved ones they have met in the past, present, and future lifetimes. The cat-and-mouse game in Zhang Legacy was born back in 1999 when she first wrote the story about young Victoria. Throughout the Authors years as a Corporate Flight Attendant, she was able to write more in her downtime. Amazingly as luck would have it, Pavarotti was her first trip taking him to a concert venue in Mexico. Wendy had the pleasure of meeting many of the world's most famous families, singers and musicians, company executives, actors, and sports figures, and as they say, never tell a writer anything that you don't want repeating. The Author spent painstaking hours researching the details of each character's stories as they come to life with humor in the days of COVID, which had us all on lockdown, realizing the importance of living in the moment with family and friends. The Author brings the friends back to a time when they met in Hong Kong. They were young, innovative, and independent children who were growing up in the fast lane. Cottiers never expected to return to a character, but she has already written the sequel with Victoria and Zenya jet-setting around town. In the Zhang Legacy, Zenya meets Victoria while at a prestigious preparatory school. A mysterious man who first appeared at a car crash scene will be waiting on the sidelines to reunite with Zenya as an adult. Zhang Legacy is the first novel by Wendy Cottiers. She conceived the idea in 1999 but only found the time to write the book in 2020 while working from home. Wendy is a graduate of the College of Natural Medicine. Staying true to her childhood roots, she continues to live just footsteps away from the Atlantic, enjoying long walks on the beach. Wendy lives in Florida, and her hobbies are photography, tennis, and visiting exotic locations so that she can write about them later. You can find updates on book signings and Heart Healthy Retreats at www.wendycottiers.com and Instagram @Writer_Wendy _Cottiers_fan_page.

The Political Philosophy of Zhang Taiyan

Author : Viren Murthy
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004203885
Total Pages : 276 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (42 download)

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Book Synopsis The Political Philosophy of Zhang Taiyan by : Viren Murthy

Download or read book The Political Philosophy of Zhang Taiyan written by Viren Murthy and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2011-02-28 with total page 276 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Drawing on a vast array of Chinese texts, Japanese scholarship, and critical philosophy, this book offers a radical rereading of Zhang Taiyan’s philosophy, highlighting the significance of Zhang’s ideas in the context of global capitalist modernity.

How Much of These Hills Is Gold

Author : C Pam Zhang
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 0525537228
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (255 download)

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Book Synopsis How Much of These Hills Is Gold by : C Pam Zhang

Download or read book How Much of These Hills Is Gold written by C Pam Zhang and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2020-04-07 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A NEW YORK TIMES NOTABLE BOOK OF THE YEAR A WASHINGTON POST NOTABLE BOOK OF THE YEAR ONE OF BARACK OBAMA'S FAVORITE BOOKS OF THE YEAR ONE OF NPR'S BEST BOOKS OF 2020 LONGLISTED FOR THE 2020 BOOKER PRIZE FINALIST FOR THE 2020 CENTER FOR FICTION FIRST NOVEL PRIZE WINNER OF THE ROSENTHAL FAMILY FOUNDATION AWARD, FROM THE AMERICAN ACADEMY OF ARTS AND LETTERS A NATIONAL BOOK FOUNDATION "5 UNDER 35" HONOREE NATIONAL BESTSELLER “Belongs on a shelf all of its own.” —NPR “Outstanding.” —The Washington Post “Revolutionary . . . A visionary addition to American literature.” —Star Tribune An electric debut novel set against the twilight of the American gold rush, two siblings are on the run in an unforgiving landscape—trying not just to survive but to find a home. Ba dies in the night; Ma is already gone. Newly orphaned children of immigrants, Lucy and Sam are suddenly alone in a land that refutes their existence. Fleeing the threats of their western mining town, they set off to bury their father in the only way that will set them free from their past. Along the way, they encounter giant buffalo bones, tiger paw prints, and the specters of a ravaged landscape as well as family secrets, sibling rivalry, and glimpses of a different kind of future. Both epic and intimate, blending Chinese symbolism and reimagined history with fiercely original language and storytelling, How Much of These Hills Is Gold is a haunting adventure story, an unforgettable sibling story, and the announcement of a stunning new voice in literature. On a broad level, it explores race in an expanding country and the question of where immigrants are allowed to belong. But page by page, it’s about the memories that bind and divide families, and the yearning for home.

The Crafting of the 10,000 Things

Author : Dagmar Schäfer
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 0226735842
Total Pages : 353 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (267 download)

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Book Synopsis The Crafting of the 10,000 Things by : Dagmar Schäfer

Download or read book The Crafting of the 10,000 Things written by Dagmar Schäfer and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2011-05-15 with total page 353 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The chapters in this book cover 'Asian Studies: East Asia' 'Biography and Letters', 'History: Asian History', 'History European History', 'History of Science', 'Literature and Literary Criticism: Asian Languages', and much more.

Historical Records of the Five Dynasties

Author : Xiu Ouyang
Publisher : Columbia University Press
ISBN 13 : 0231128274
Total Pages : 754 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (311 download)

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Book Synopsis Historical Records of the Five Dynasties by : Xiu Ouyang

Download or read book Historical Records of the Five Dynasties written by Xiu Ouyang and published by Columbia University Press. This book was released on 2004 with total page 754 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Written by Ouyang Xiu (1007-1072), an intellectual giant of the Song dynasty, Historical Records of the Five Dynasties offers a compelling interpretation of the Five Dynasties period (907-979). In overhauling the existing official history, Ouyang Xiu made several notable decisions. He recast the entire narrative in the popular "ancient" style to make for a rare fluency. He adopted rigorous moral categories to evaluate historical figures, reflecting the new regimen of his day. He also annotated portions of the text to establish a methodology for future writers. The Historical Records thereby became the official version-the last of China's dynastic histories to be written by an individual in a private capacity. In addition to its provocative commentary and lucid presentation, Historical Records is an eloquent statement on the art and craft of historical writing in the eleventh century.

Merze Tate

Author : Barbara D. Savage
Publisher : Yale University Press
ISBN 13 : 0300274815
Total Pages : 317 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Merze Tate by : Barbara D. Savage

Download or read book Merze Tate written by Barbara D. Savage and published by Yale University Press. This book was released on 2023-11-21 with total page 317 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A powerful and inspiring biography of Merze Tate, a trailblazing Black woman scholar and intrepid world traveler Born in rural Michigan during the Jim Crow era, the bold and irrepressible Merze Tate (1905–1996) refused to limit her intellectual ambitions, despite living in what she called a “sex and race discriminating world.” Against all odds, the brilliant and hardworking Tate earned degrees in international relations from Oxford University in 1935 and a doctorate in government from Harvard in 1941. She then joined the faculty of Howard University, where she taught for three decades of her long life spanning the tumultuous twentieth century. This book revives and critiques Tate’s prolific and prescient body of scholarship, with topics ranging from nuclear arms limitations to race and imperialism in India, Asia, the Pacific, and Africa. Tate credited her success to other women, Black and white, who helped her realize her dream of becoming a scholar. Her quest for research and adventure took her around the world twice, traveling solo with her cameras. Barbara Savage’s skilled rendering of Tate’s story is built on more than a decade of research. Tate’s life and work challenge provincial approaches to African American and American history, women’s history, the history of education, diplomatic history, and international thought.

Murder & Mayhem in Grand Rapids

Author : Tobin T. Buhk
Publisher : Arcadia Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1625855516
Total Pages : 160 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (258 download)

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Book Synopsis Murder & Mayhem in Grand Rapids by : Tobin T. Buhk

Download or read book Murder & Mayhem in Grand Rapids written by Tobin T. Buhk and published by Arcadia Publishing. This book was released on 2015-10-26 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While the River City is known for its history of furniture making, it also has a sinister side. Jennie Flood was a widow with a get-rich scheme that involved a shotgun and an insurance application. Reverend Ferris went undercover in his war against the city's purveyors of vice. The police rounded up the usual suspects in an attempt to solve the infamous 1921 bank heist that led to the slaying of two detectives. And the death of a teenager exposed "Aunty" Smith and her dangerous side business conducted in the shadows. Author Tobin T. Buhk delves into the colorful characters of Grand Rapids' past and the heinous crimes they committed.

Slaves of the Emperor

Author : David C. Porter
Publisher : Columbia University Press
ISBN 13 : 0231559550
Total Pages : 500 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (315 download)

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Book Synopsis Slaves of the Emperor by : David C. Porter

Download or read book Slaves of the Emperor written by David C. Porter and published by Columbia University Press. This book was released on 2023-12-26 with total page 500 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: China’s last imperial dynasty governed a vast and culturally diverse territory, encompassing a wide range of local political systems and regional elites. But the Qing empire was built and held together by a single imperial elite: the more than two million members of the hereditary Eight Banner system who were at the core of both the military and the bureaucracy. The banner population was multiethnic, linked by shared membership in a clearly demarcated status group defined in law and administrative practice. Banner people were bound to the court by an exchange of loyal service for institutionalized privilege, a relationship symbolically conceptualized as one of slave to master. Slaves of the Emperor explores the Qing approach to one of the fundamental challenges of early modern state-building: how to develop an effective bureaucracy with increasing administrative capacity to govern a growing polity while retaining the loyalty of the ruling family’s most important supporters. David C. Porter traces how the banner system created a service elite through its processes of incorporating new members, its employment of bannermen as technical specialists, its imposition of service obligations on women as well as men, and its response to fiscal and ideological challenges. Placing Qing practices in comparative perspective, he uncovers crucial parallels to similar institutions in Tokugawa Japan, imperial Russia, and the Ottoman Empire. Slaves of the Emperor provides a new framework for understanding the structure and function of elites both in China and across Eurasia in the early modern period.

Salt and Light, Volume 2

Author : Carol Lee Hamrin
Publisher : Wipf and Stock Publishers
ISBN 13 : 1621892735
Total Pages : 252 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (218 download)

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Book Synopsis Salt and Light, Volume 2 by : Carol Lee Hamrin

Download or read book Salt and Light, Volume 2 written by Carol Lee Hamrin and published by Wipf and Stock Publishers. This book was released on 2010-02-11 with total page 252 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The hidden seeds of the Christian renewal in China today include the outstanding Chinese Christians in Salt and Light 2, a dozen new life stories with lively anecdotes and photographs. These reformers made lasting contributions that shaped modern China. Working out of the limelight in their professions, they had quiet but powerful influence on early twentieth-century civil society. Motivated by their faith, they modeled essential virtues. This series helps recover a lost Christian heritage linked closely to a legacy of East-West cooperation in an earlier global era.

Laws of the Land

Author : Tristan G. Brown
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691246734
Total Pages : 360 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (912 download)

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Book Synopsis Laws of the Land by : Tristan G. Brown

Download or read book Laws of the Land written by Tristan G. Brown and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2023-12-05 with total page 360 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A groundbreaking history of fengshui’s roles in public life and law during China’s last imperial dynasty Today the term fengshui, which literally means “wind and water,” is recognized around the world. Yet few know exactly what it means, let alone its fascinating history. In Laws of the Land, Tristan Brown tells the story of the important roles—especially legal ones—played by fengshui in Chinese society during China’s last imperial dynasty, the Manchu Qing (1644–1912). Employing archives from Mainland China and Taiwan that have only recently become available, this is the first book to document fengshui’s invocations in Chinese law during the Qing dynasty. Facing a growing population, dwindling natural resources, and an overburdened rural government, judicial administrators across China grappled with disputes and petitions about fengshui in their efforts to sustain forestry, farming, mining, and city planning. Laws of the Land offers a radically new interpretation of these legal arrangements: they worked. An intelligent, considered, and sustained engagement with fengshui on the ground helped the imperial state keep the peace and maintain its legitimacy, especially during the increasingly turbulent decades of the nineteenth century. As the century came to an end, contentious debates over industrialization swept across the bureaucracy, with fengshui invoked by officials and scholars opposed to the establishment of railways, telegraphs, and foreign-owned mines. Demonstrating that the only way to understand those debates and their profound stakes is to grasp fengshui’s longstanding roles in Chinese public life, Laws of the Land rethinks key issues in the history of Chinese law, politics, science, religion, and economics.

HISTORY OF THREE KINGDOMS

Author : Li Shi
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis HISTORY OF THREE KINGDOMS by : Li Shi

Download or read book HISTORY OF THREE KINGDOMS written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Twenty-Four Histories (Chinese: 二十四史) are the Chinese official historical books covering a period from 3000 BC to the Ming dynasty in the 17th century. The Han dynasty official Sima Qian established many of the conventions of the genre. Starting with the Tang dynasty, each dynasty established an official office to write the history of its predecessor using official court records. As fixed and edited in the Qing dynasty, the whole set contains 3213 volumes and about 40 million words. It is considered one of the most important sources on Chinese history and culture. The title "Twenty-Four Histories" dates from 1775 which was the 40th year in the reign of the Qianlong Emperor. This was when the last volume, the History of Min gwas reworked and a complete set of the histories produced. The Twenty Four Histories include: •Early Four Historiographies (前四史) •Records of the Grand Historian (史記, Shǐ Jì), compiled by Sima Qian 司馬遷 in 91 BC •Book of Han (漢書, Hàn Shū), compiled by Ban Gu 班固 in 82 •Records of the Three Kingdoms (三國志, Sānguó Zhì), compiled by Chen Shou 陳壽 in 289 •Book of Later Han (後漢書, Hòuhàn Shū), compiled by Fan Ye 范曄 in 445[2] •Book of Song (simplified Chinese: 宋书; traditional Chinese: 宋書; pinyin: Sòng Shū)—Southern Dynasties, compiled by Shen Yue 沈約 in 488 •Book of Qi (simplified Chinese: 齐书; traditional Chinese: 齊書; pinyin: Qí Shū)—Southern Dynasties, compiled by Xiao Zixian 蕭子顯 in 537 •Book of Wei (simplified Chinese: 魏书; traditional Chinese: 魏書; pinyin: Wèi Shū)—Northern Dynasties, compiled by Wei Shou 魏收 in 554 •Eight Historiographies complied in Tang Dynasty (唐初八史) •Book of Liang (梁書, Liáng Shū)—Southern Dynasties, compiled by Yao Silian 姚思廉 in 636 •Book of Chen (陳書, Chén Shū)—Southern Dynasties, compiled by Yao Silian in 636 •Book of Northern Qi (北齊書, Běi Qí Shū)—Northern Dynasties, compiled by Li Baiyao 李百藥 in 636 •Book of Zhou (周書, Zhōu Shū)—Northern Dynasties, compiled under Linghu Defen 令狐德棻 in 636 •Book of Sui (隋書, Suí Shū), compiled under Wei Zheng 魏徵 in 636 •Book of Jin (晉書, Jìn Shū), compiled under Fang Xuanling 房玄齡 in 648 •History of the Southern Dynasties (南史, Nán Shǐ), compiled by Li Yanshou 李延壽 in 659 •History of the Northern Dynasties (北史, Běi Shǐ), compiled by Li Yanshou in 659 •Old Book of Tang (唐書, Táng Shū), compiled under Liu Xu 劉昫 in 945 •Old History of the Five Dynasties (五代史, Wǔdài Shǐ), compiled under Xue Juzheng 薛居正 in 974 •New History of the Five Dynasties (新五代史, Xīn Wǔdài Shǐ), compiled under Ouyang Xiu 歐陽脩 in 1053 •New Book of Tang (新唐書, Xīn Táng Shū), compiled under Ouyang Xiu in 1060 •Three Historiographies compiled in Yuan Dynasty (元末三史) •History of Liao (遼史, Liáo Shǐ), compiled under Toqto'a 脫脫 in 1343[3] •History of Jin (金史, Jīn Shǐ), compiled under Toqto'a in 1345 •History of Song (宋史, Sòng Shǐ), compiled under Toqto'a in 1345 •History of Yuan (元史, Yuán Shǐ), compiled under Song Lian 宋濂 in 1370 •History of Ming (明史, Míng Shǐ), compiled under Zhang Tingyu 張廷玉 in 1739

Power for a Price

Author : Lawrence Zhang
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 1684176689
Total Pages : 322 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (841 download)

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Book Synopsis Power for a Price by : Lawrence Zhang

Download or read book Power for a Price written by Lawrence Zhang and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2023-11-20 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Qing dynasty office purchase system (juanna), which allowed individuals to pay for appointments in the government, was regarded in traditional Chinese historiography as an inherently corrupt and anti-meritocratic practice. It enabled participants to become civil and military officials while avoiding the competitive government-run examination systems. Lawrence Zhang’s groundbreaking study of a broad selection of new archival and other printed evidence—including a list of over 10,900 purchasers of offices from 1798 and narratives of purchase—contradicts this widely held assessment and investigates how observers and critics of the system, past and present, have informed this questionable negative view. The author argues that, rather than seeing office purchase as a last resort for those who failed to obtain official appointments via other means, it was a preferred method for wealthy and well-connected individuals to leverage their social capital to the fullest extent. Office purchase was thus not only a useful device that raised funds for the state, but also a political tool that, through literal investments in their positions and their potential to secure status and power, tied the interests of official elites ever more closely to those of the state.

Survey of Chinese History in the Twentieth Century

Author : Chongji Jin
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9819952239
Total Pages : 632 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (199 download)

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Book Synopsis Survey of Chinese History in the Twentieth Century by : Chongji Jin

Download or read book Survey of Chinese History in the Twentieth Century written by Chongji Jin and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2023-09-27 with total page 632 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents a panoramic history of the Chinese nation spanning the twentieth century, with the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation as its central theme. In their unwavering pursuit of national independence, universal emancipation, and a country of power and shared prosperity, the Chinese people undertook an arduous journey that saw China fundamentally transformed by such historic events and experiences as the overthrow of the imperial system in the 1911 Revolution, the founding of the People’s Republic of China, reform and opening up, and the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Massive in scope, meticulously documented, and rigorously written, this volume has few rivals among general histories of China in the twentieth century.

Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography

Author : Kerry Brown
Publisher : Berkshire Publishing Group
ISBN 13 : 1933782617
Total Pages : 1744 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (337 download)

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Book Synopsis Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography by : Kerry Brown

Download or read book Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography written by Kerry Brown and published by Berkshire Publishing Group. This book was released on 2017-12-27 with total page 1744 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography, the first publication of its kind since 1898, is the work of more than one hundred internationally recognized experts from nearly a dozen countries. It has been designed to satisfy the growing thirst of students, researchers, professionals, and general readers for knowledge about China. It makes the entire span of Chinese history manageable by introducing the reader to emperors, politicians, poets, writers, artists, scientists, explorers, and philosophers who have shaped and transformed China over the course of five thousand years. In 135 entries, ranging from 1,000 to 8,000 words and written by some of the world's leading China scholars, the Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography takes the reader from the important (even if possibly mythological) figures of ancient China to Communist leaders Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping. The in-depth essays provide rich historical context, and create a compelling narrative that weaves abstract concepts and disparate events into a coherent story. Cross-references between the articles show the connections between times, places, movements, events, and individuals.

Sport Participation and Olympic Legacies

Author : Spencer Harris
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1315523752
Total Pages : 182 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (155 download)

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Book Synopsis Sport Participation and Olympic Legacies by : Spencer Harris

Download or read book Sport Participation and Olympic Legacies written by Spencer Harris and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-08-10 with total page 182 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book examines claims that the Olympic Games are a vehicle to inspire and increase mass sport participation. It focuses on the mass sport participation legacy of the most recent hosts of the summer Olympics, including Atlanta, Sydney, Athens, Beijing, London, Rio, and Tokyo. It is organised by host city/country and applies an analytical framework to each, addressing the socio-political context that shapes sport policy, the key changes in sport policy, the structure and governance of community sport, the Olympic and Paralympic legacy, and the changes in mass sport participation before, during, and after the Games. The book is important reading for students, researchers, and policymakers working in sport governance, sport development or management, and the sport policy sector.

The Legacy of the Cold War

Author : Vojtech Mastny
Publisher : Lexington Books
ISBN 13 : 0739187902
Total Pages : 388 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (391 download)

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Book Synopsis The Legacy of the Cold War by : Vojtech Mastny

Download or read book The Legacy of the Cold War written by Vojtech Mastny and published by Lexington Books. This book was released on 2013-12-16 with total page 388 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The unexpected end of the protracted conflict has been a sobering experience for scholars. No theory had anticipated how the Cold War would be terminated, and none should also be relied upon to explicate its legacy. But instead of relying on preconceived formulas to project past developments, taking a historical perspective to explain their causes and consequences allows one to better understand trends and their long-term significance. The present book takes such perspective, focusing on the evolution of security, its substance as well as its perception, the concurrent development of alliances and other cooperative structures for security, and their effectiveness in managing conflicts. In The Legacy of the Cold War Vojtech Mastny and Zhu Liqun bring together scholars to examine the worldwide effects of the Cold War on international security. Focusing on regions where the Cold War made the most enduring impact―the Euro-Atlantic area and East Asia―historians, political scientists, and international relations scholars explore alliances and other security measures during the Cold War and how they carry over into the twenty-first century.

History of Customs in the Yuan Dynasty

Author : Li Shi
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis History of Customs in the Yuan Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book History of Customs in the Yuan Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “History of Customs in the Yuan Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.