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Witches, Wife Beaters, and Whores

Author : Elaine Forman Crane
Publisher : Cornell University Press
ISBN 13 : 0801462746
Total Pages : 289 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (14 download)

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Book Synopsis Witches, Wife Beaters, and Whores by : Elaine Forman Crane

Download or read book Witches, Wife Beaters, and Whores written by Elaine Forman Crane and published by Cornell University Press. This book was released on 2011-10-15 with total page 289 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The early American legal system permeated the lives of colonists and reflected their sense of what was right and wrong, honorable and dishonorable, moral and immoral. In a compelling book full of the extraordinary stories of ordinary people, Elaine Forman Crane reveals the ways in which early Americans clashed with or conformed to the social norms established by the law. As trials throughout the country reveal, alleged malefactors such as witches, wife beaters, and whores, as well as debtors, rapists, and fornicators, were as much a part of the social landscape as farmers, merchants, and ministers. Ordinary people "made" law by establishing and enforcing informal rules of conduct. Codified by a handshake or over a mug of ale, such agreements became custom and custom became "law." Furthermore, by submitting to formal laws initiated from above, common folk legitimized a government that depended on popular consent to rule with authority. In this book we meet Marretie Joris, a New Amsterdam entrepreneur who sues Gabriel de Haes for calling her a whore; peer cautiously at Christian Stevenson, a Bermudian witch as bad "as any in the world;" and learn that Hannah Dyre feared to be alone with her husband—and subsequently died after a beating. We travel with Comfort Taylor as she crosses Narragansett Bay with Cuff, an enslaved ferry captain, whom she accuses of attempted rape, and watch as Samuel Banister pulls the trigger of a gun that kills the sheriff's deputy who tried to evict Banister from his home. And finally, we consider the promiscuous Marylanders Thomas Harris and Ann Goldsborough, who parented four illegitimate children, ran afoul of inheritance laws, and resolved matters only with the assistance of a ghost. Through the six trials she skillfully reconstructs here, Crane offers a surprising new look at how early American society defined and punished aberrant behavior, even as it defined itself through its legal system.

Speaking with the Dead in Early America

Author : Erik R. Seeman
Publisher : University of Pennsylvania Press
ISBN 13 : 0812251539
Total Pages : 344 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (122 download)

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Book Synopsis Speaking with the Dead in Early America by : Erik R. Seeman

Download or read book Speaking with the Dead in Early America written by Erik R. Seeman and published by University of Pennsylvania Press. This book was released on 2019-11-01 with total page 344 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In late medieval Catholicism, mourners employed an array of practices to maintain connection with the deceased—most crucially, the belief in purgatory, a middle place between heaven and hell where souls could be helped by the actions of the living. In the early sixteenth century, the Reformation abolished purgatory, as its leaders did not want attention to the dead diminishing people's devotion to God. But while the Reformation was supposed to end communication between the living and dead, it turns out the result was in fact more complicated than historians have realized. In the three centuries after the Reformation, Protestants imagined continuing relationships with the dead, and the desire for these relations came to form an important—and since neglected—aspect of Protestant belief and practice. In Speaking with the Dead in Early America, historian Erik R. Seeman undertakes a 300-year history of Protestant communication with the dead. Seeman chronicles the story of Protestants' relationships with the deceased from Elizabethan England to puritan New England and then on through the American Enlightenment into the middle of the nineteenth century with the explosion of interest in Spiritualism. He brings together a wide range of sources to uncover the beliefs and practices of both ordinary people, especially women, and religious leaders. This prodigious research reveals how sermons, elegies, and epitaphs portrayed the dead as speaking or being spoken to, how ghost stories and Gothic fiction depicted a permeable boundary between this world and the next, and how parlor songs and funeral hymns encouraged singers to imagine communication with the dead. Speaking with the Dead in Early America thus boldly reinterprets Protestantism as a religion in which the dead played a central role.

Hannah Whitman Heyde

Author : Hannah Whitman Heyde [1823-1908]
Publisher : Rutgers University Press
ISBN 13 : 168448362X
Total Pages : 149 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (844 download)

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Book Synopsis Hannah Whitman Heyde by : Hannah Whitman Heyde [1823-1908]

Download or read book Hannah Whitman Heyde written by Hannah Whitman Heyde [1823-1908] and published by Rutgers University Press. This book was released on 2021-12-10 with total page 149 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The correspondence of Hannah Whitman Heyde (1823-1908), younger sister of poet Walt Whitman, provides a rare glimpse into the life of a nineteenth-century woman. Married to well-known Vermont landscape artist Charles Louis Heyde (1820-1892), Hannah documented in letters to her mother, Louisa Van Velsor Whitman (1795-1873), and other family members, her lived experience of ongoing physical and emotional abuse at the hands of her husband. Hannah has long been characterized in biographical and scholarly studies of Whitman’s family as a neurotic and a hypochondriac—a narrative promulgated by Heyde himself—but Walt Whitman carefully preserved his sister’s letters, telling his literary biographer that his intention was to document her plight. Hannah’s complete letters, gathered here for the first time and painstakingly edited and annotated by Maire Mullins, provide an important counternarrative, allowing readers insight into the life of a real nineteenth-century woman, sister, and wife to famous men, who endured and eventually survived domestic violence.

Switching Sides

Author : Tony Fels
Publisher : JHU Press
ISBN 13 : 1421424371
Total Pages : 281 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (214 download)

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Book Synopsis Switching Sides by : Tony Fels

Download or read book Switching Sides written by Tony Fels and published by JHU Press. This book was released on 2018-01-25 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Starkey's devil in Massachusetts and the Post-World War II consensus -- Boyer and Nissenbaum's Salem possessed and the anti-capitalist critique -- An aside: investigations into the practice of actual witchcraft in seventeenth-century New England -- Demos's entertaining satan and the functionalist perspective -- Karlsen's devil in the shape of a woman and feminist interpretations -- Norton's in the devil's snare and racial approaches, I -- Norton's in the devil's snare and racial approaches, II

Vexed with Devils

Author : Erika Gasser
Publisher : NYU Press
ISBN 13 : 1479871133
Total Pages : 244 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (798 download)

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Book Synopsis Vexed with Devils by : Erika Gasser

Download or read book Vexed with Devils written by Erika Gasser and published by NYU Press. This book was released on 2019-12-15 with total page 244 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Stories of witchcraft and demonic possession from early modern England through the last official trials in colonial New England Those possessed by the devil in early modern England usually exhibited a common set of symptoms: fits, vomiting, visions, contortions, speaking in tongues, and an antipathy to prayer. However, it was a matter of interpretation, and sometimes public opinion, if these symptoms were visited upon the victim, or if they came from within. Both early modern England and colonial New England had cases that blurred the line between witchcraft and demonic possession, most famously, the Salem witch trials. While historians acknowledge some similarities in witch trials between the two regions, such as the fact that an overwhelming majority of witches were women, the histories of these cases primarily focus on local contexts and specifics. In so doing, they overlook the ways in which manhood factored into possession and witchcraft cases. Vexed with Devils is a cultural history of witchcraft-possession phenomena that centers on the role of men and patriarchal power. Erika Gasser reveals that witchcraft trials had as much to do with who had power in the community, to impose judgement or to subvert order, as they did with religious belief. She argues that the gendered dynamics of possession and witchcraft demonstrated that contested meanings of manhood played a critical role in the struggle to maintain authority. While all men were not capable of accessing power in the same ways, many of the people involved—those who acted as if they were possessed, men accused of being witches, and men who wrote possession propaganda—invoked manhood as they struggled to advocate for themselves during these perilous times. Gasser ultimately concludes that the decline of possession and witchcraft cases was not merely a product of change over time, but rather an indication of the ways in which patriarchal power endured throughout and beyond the colonial period. Vexed with Devils reexamines an unnerving time and offers a surprising new perspective on our own, using stories and voices which emerge from the records in ways that continue to fascinate and unsettle us.

Monsters and Borders in the Early Modern Imagination

Author : Jana Byars
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429878850
Total Pages : 200 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (298 download)

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Book Synopsis Monsters and Borders in the Early Modern Imagination by : Jana Byars

Download or read book Monsters and Borders in the Early Modern Imagination written by Jana Byars and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018-06-14 with total page 200 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This edited collection explores the axis where monstrosity and borderlands meet to reflect the tensions, apprehensions, and excitement over the radical changes of the early modern era. The book investigates the monstrous as it acts in liminal spaces in the Renaissance and the era of Enlightenment. Zones of interaction include chronological change – from the early New World encounters through the seventeenth century – and cultural and scientific changes, in the margins between national boundaries, and also cultural and intellectual boundaries.

Blood from the Sky

Author : Adam Jortner
Publisher : University of Virginia Press
ISBN 13 : 0813939593
Total Pages : 264 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (139 download)

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Book Synopsis Blood from the Sky by : Adam Jortner

Download or read book Blood from the Sky written by Adam Jortner and published by University of Virginia Press. This book was released on 2017-02-03 with total page 264 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the decades following the Revolution, the supernatural exploded across the American landscape—fabulous reports of healings, exorcisms, magic, and angels crossed the nation. Under First Amendment protections, new sects based on such miracles proliferated. At the same time, Enlightenment philosophers and American founders explicitly denied the possibility of supernatural events, dismissing them as deliberate falsehoods—and, therefore, efforts to suborn the state. Many feared that belief in the supernatural itself was a danger to democracy. In this way, miracles became a political problem and prompted violent responses in the religious communities of Prophetstown, Turtle Creek, and Nauvoo. In Blood from the Sky, Adam Jortner argues that the astonishing breadth and extent of American miracles and supernaturalism following independence derived from Enlightenment ideas about proof and sensory evidence, offering a chance at certain belief in an uncertain religious climate. Jortner breaks new ground in explaining the rise of radical religion in antebellum America, revisiting questions of disenchantment, modernity, and religious belief in a history of astounding events that—as early Americans would have said—needed to be seen to be believed.

Women Waging War in the American Revolution

Author : Holly A. Mayer
Publisher : University of Virginia Press
ISBN 13 : 0813948282
Total Pages : 394 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (139 download)

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Book Synopsis Women Waging War in the American Revolution by : Holly A. Mayer

Download or read book Women Waging War in the American Revolution written by Holly A. Mayer and published by University of Virginia Press. This book was released on 2022-09-07 with total page 394 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: America’s War for Independence dramatically affected the speed and nature of broader social, cultural, and political changes including those shaping the place and roles of women in society. Women fought the American Revolution in many ways, in a literal no less than a figurative sense. Whether Loyalist or Patriot, Indigenous or immigrant enslaved or slave-owning, going willingly into battle or responding when war came to their doorsteps, women participated in the conflict in complex and varied ways that reveal the critical distinctions and intersections of race, class, and allegiance that defined the era. This collection examines the impact of Revolutionary-era women on the outcomes of the war and its subsequent narrative tradition, from popular perception to academic treatment. The contributors show how women navigated a country at war, directly affected the war’s result, and influenced the foundational historical record left in its wake. Engaging directly with that record, this volume’s authors demonstrate the ways that the Revolution transformed women’s place in America as it offered new opportunities but also imposed new limitations in the brave new world they helped create. Contributors: Jacqueline Beatty, York College * Carin Bloom, Historic Charleston Foundation * Todd W. Braisted, independent scholar * Benjamin L. Carp, Brooklyn College * Lauren Duval, University of Oklahoma * Steven Elliott, U.S. Army Center of Military History * Lorri Glover, Saint Louis University * Don N. Hagist, Journal of the American Revolution * Sean M. Heuvel, Christopher Newport University * Martha J. King, Papers of Thomas Jefferson * Barbara Alice Mann, University of Toledo * J. Patrick Mullins, Marquette University * Alisa Wade, California State University at Chico

White Supremacy and Anti-Supremacy Forces in the United States

Author : George Lundskow
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3031605632
Total Pages : 208 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (316 download)

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Book Synopsis White Supremacy and Anti-Supremacy Forces in the United States by : George Lundskow

Download or read book White Supremacy and Anti-Supremacy Forces in the United States written by George Lundskow and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

The Case of Mistress Mary Hampson

Author : Jessica Malay
Publisher : Stanford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0804790604
Total Pages : 177 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (47 download)

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Book Synopsis The Case of Mistress Mary Hampson by : Jessica Malay

Download or read book The Case of Mistress Mary Hampson written by Jessica Malay and published by Stanford University Press. This book was released on 2014-01-29 with total page 177 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The centerpiece of The Case of Mistress Mary Hampson is the autobiographical narrative of a 17th-century woman in an abusive and violent marriage. Composed at a time when marital disharmony was in vogue with readers and publishers, it stands out from comparable works, usually single broadsheets. In her own words, Mary recounts various dramatic and stressful episodes from her decades-long marriage to Robert Hampson and her strategies for dealing with it. The harrowing tale contains scenes of physical abuse, mob violence, abandonment, flight, and destitution. It also shows moments of personal courage and interventions on the author's behalf by friends and strangers, some of whom are subject to severe reprisals. Mary wrote her story to come to terms with her situation, to justify her actions, and to cast herself in a virtuous light. The accompanying discussion of her life, drawn from other sources, provides chilling evidence of the vulnerability of seventeenth-century women and the flawed legal mechanisms that were supposed to protect them. Readers are also invited to consider in what ways the self-portrait is accurate and what elements of it may be considered fabrication. Malay's archival efforts have thus rescued a compelling and complicated voice from the past.

Puritan Family and Community in the English Atlantic World

Author : Margaret Murányi Manchester
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429619901
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (296 download)

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Book Synopsis Puritan Family and Community in the English Atlantic World by : Margaret Murányi Manchester

Download or read book Puritan Family and Community in the English Atlantic World written by Margaret Murányi Manchester and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-05-31 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Puritan Family and Community in the English Atlantic World examines the dynamics of marriage, family and community life during the "Great Migration" through the microhistorical study of one puritan family in 1638 Rhode Island. Through studying the Verin family, a group of English non-conformists who took part in the "Great Migration", this book examines differing approaches within puritanism towards critical issues of the age, including liberty of conscience, marriage, family, female agency, domestic violence, and the role of civil government in responding to these developments. Like other nonconformists who challenged the established Church of England, the Verins faced important personal dilemmas brought on by the dictates of their conscience even after emigrating. A violent marital dispute between Jane and her husband Joshua divided the Providence community and resulted, for the first time in the English-speaking colonies, in a woman’s right to a liberty of conscience independent of her husband being upheld. Through biographical sketches of the founders of Providence and engaging with puritan ministerial and prescriptive literature and female-authored petitions and pamphlets, this book illustrates how women saw their place in the world and considers the exercise of female agency in the early modern era. Connecting migration studies, family and community studies, religious studies, and political philosophy, Puritan Family and Community in the English Atlantic World will be of great interest to scholars of the English Atlantic World, American religious history, gender and violence, the history of New England, and the history of family.

Intimate Partner Violence in New Orleans

Author : Ashley Baggett
Publisher : Univ. Press of Mississippi
ISBN 13 : 1496815246
Total Pages : 228 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (968 download)

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Book Synopsis Intimate Partner Violence in New Orleans by : Ashley Baggett

Download or read book Intimate Partner Violence in New Orleans written by Ashley Baggett and published by Univ. Press of Mississippi. This book was released on 2017-10-13 with total page 228 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Ashley Baggett uncovers the voices of abused women who utilized the legal system in New Orleans to address their grievances from the antebellum era to the end of the nineteenth century. Poring over 26,000 records, Baggett analyzes 421 criminal cases involving intimate partner violence" physical or emotional abuse of a partner in a romantic relationship--revealing a significant demand among women, the community, and the courts for reform in the postbellum decades. Before the Civil War, some challenges and limits to the male privilege of chastisement existed, but the gendered power structure and the veil of privacy for families in the courts largely shielded abusers from criminal prosecution. However, the war upended gender expectations and increased female autonomy, leading to the demand for and brief recognition of women's right to be free from violence. Baggett demonstrates how postbellum decades offered a fleeting opportunity for change before the gender and racial expectations hardened with the rise of Jim Crow. Her findings reveal previously unseen dimensions of women's lives both inside and outside legal marriage and women's attempts to renegotiate power in relationships. Highlighting the lived experiences of these women, Baggett tracks how gender, race, and location worked together to define and redefine gender expectations and legal rights. Moreover, she demonstrates recognition of women's legal personhood as well as differences between northern and southern states" trajectories in response to intimate partner violence during the nineteenth century.

Rethinking Rufus

Author : Thomas A. Foster
Publisher : University of Georgia Press
ISBN 13 : 0820355224
Total Pages : 193 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Rethinking Rufus by : Thomas A. Foster

Download or read book Rethinking Rufus written by Thomas A. Foster and published by University of Georgia Press. This book was released on 2019-05-01 with total page 193 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Rethinking Rufus is the first book-length study of sexual violence against enslaved men. Scholars have extensively documented the widespread sexual exploitation and abuse suffered by enslaved women, with comparatively little attention paid to the stories of men. However, a careful reading of extant sources reveals that sexual assault of enslaved men also occurred systematically and in a wide variety of forms, including physical assault, sexual coercion, and other intimate violations. To tell the story of men such as Rufus-who was coerced into a sexual union with an enslaved woman, Rose, whose resistance of this union is widely celebrated-historian Thomas A. Foster interrogates a range of sources on slavery: early American newspapers, court records, enslavers' journals, abolitionist literature, the testimony of formerly enslaved people collected in autobiographies and in interviews, and various forms of artistic representation. Foster's sustained examination of how black men were sexually violated by both white men and white women makes an important contribution to our understanding of masculinity, sexuality, the lived experience of enslaved men, and the general power dynamics fostered by the institution of slavery. Rethinking Rufus illuminates how the conditions of slavery gave rise to a variety of forms of sexual assault and exploitation that affected all members of the community.

The Poison Plot

Author : Elaine Forman Crane
Publisher : Cornell University Press
ISBN 13 : 1501721321
Total Pages : 357 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis The Poison Plot by : Elaine Forman Crane

Download or read book The Poison Plot written by Elaine Forman Crane and published by Cornell University Press. This book was released on 2018-05-15 with total page 357 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An accusation of attempted murder rudely interrupted Mary Arnold’s dalliances with working men and her extensive shopping sprees. When her husband Benedict fell deathly ill and then asserted she had tried to kill him with poison, the result was a dramatic petition for divorce. The case before the Rhode Island General Assembly and its tumultuous aftermath, during which Benedict died, made Mary a cause célèbre in Newport through the winter of 1738 and 1739. Elaine Forman Crane invites readers into the salacious domestic life of Mary and Benedict Arnold and reveals the seamy side of colonial Newport. The surprise of The Poison Plot, however, is not the outrageous acts of Mary or the peculiar fact that attempted murder was not a convictable offense in Rhode Island. As Crane shows with style, Mary’s case was remarkable precisely because adultery, criminality and theft, and even spousal homicide were well known in the New England colonies. Assumptions of Puritan propriety are overturned by the facts of rough and tumble life in a port city: money was to be made, pleasure was to be had, and if marriage became an obstacle to those pursuits a woman had means to set things right. The Poison Plot is an intimate drama constructed from historical documents and informed by Crane’s deep knowledge of elite and common life in Newport. Her keen eye for telling details and her sense of story bring Mary, Benedict, and a host of other characters—including her partner in adultery, Walter Motley, and John Tweedy the apothecary who sold Mary toxic drugs—to life in the homes, streets, and shops of the port city. The result is a vivid tale that will change minds about life in supposedly prim and proper New England.

Law and Sexual Misconduct in New England, 1650-1750

Author : Abby Chandler
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317107799
Total Pages : 200 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (171 download)

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Book Synopsis Law and Sexual Misconduct in New England, 1650-1750 by : Abby Chandler

Download or read book Law and Sexual Misconduct in New England, 1650-1750 written by Abby Chandler and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-04-15 with total page 200 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Having arriving in the Province of Maine in 1641 with a brief to create both government and law for the fledgling colony, Thomas Gorges later recorded his policy as having ’steared as neere as we could to the course of Ingland’. Over the course of the next century the various colonial administrations all consciously measured their laws against that of England, whether their intention was imitation of or conscious opposition to, established English legal system. In order to trace the shifting and contested relationships between colonial laws and English laws, this book focuses on the prosecution of sexual misconduct. All crimes can threaten orderly society but no other crime posed quite the same long term implications as illicit sex resulting in the birth of illegitimate children who became their own social challenges. Sexual misconduct was, consequently, a major concern for early modern leaders, making it a particularly fruitful subject for studying the complex relationship between laws in England and laws in the English colonies. Political and ecclesiastical leaders create laws to coerce people to behave in a certain fashion and to convey wider messages about the societies they govern. When those same laws are broken, lawbreakers must be tried and punished by a means intended to serve as a warning to other would-be lawbreakers. In this book the two-part analysis of changing sexual misconduct laws and the resulting trial depositions highlights the ways in which ordinary New England colonists across New England both interacted with and responded to the growing Anglicization of their legal systems and makes the argument that these men and women saw themselves as taking part in a much larger process.

Puritans Behaving Badly

Author : Monica D. Fitzgerald
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108478786
Total Pages : 193 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (84 download)

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Book Synopsis Puritans Behaving Badly by : Monica D. Fitzgerald

Download or read book Puritans Behaving Badly written by Monica D. Fitzgerald and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2020-05-21 with total page 193 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Examines the sins and confessions in church disciplinary records to argue that daily practices created a gendered Puritanism.

Faithful Bodies

Author : Heather Miyano Kopelson
Publisher : NYU Press
ISBN 13 : 1479852341
Total Pages : 473 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (798 download)

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Book Synopsis Faithful Bodies by : Heather Miyano Kopelson

Download or read book Faithful Bodies written by Heather Miyano Kopelson and published by NYU Press. This book was released on 2019-03-12 with total page 473 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the seventeenth-century English Atlantic, religious beliefs and practices played a central role in creating racial identity. English Protestantism provided a vocabulary and structure to describe and maintain boundaries between insider and outsider. In this path-breaking study, Heather Miyano Kopelson peels back the layers of conflicting definitions of bodies and competing practices of faith in the puritan Atlantic, demonstrating how the categories of “white,” “black,” and “Indian” developed alongside religious boundaries between “Christian” and “heathen” and between “Catholic” and “Protestant.” Faithful Bodies focuses on three communities of Protestant dissent in the Atlantic World: Bermuda, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. In this “puritan Atlantic,” religion determined insider and outsider status: at times Africans and Natives could belong as long as they embraced the Protestant faith, while Irish Catholics and English Quakers remained suspect. Colonists’ interactions with indigenous peoples of the Americas and with West Central Africans shaped their understandings of human difference and its acceptable boundaries. Prayer, religious instruction, sexual behavior, and other public and private acts became markers of whether or not blacks and Indians were sinning Christians or godless heathens. As slavery became law, transgressing people of color counted less and less as sinners in English puritans’ eyes, even as some of them made Christianity an integral part of their communities. As Kopelson shows, this transformation proceeded unevenly but inexorably during the long seventeenth century.