Science and the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory)

Download Science and the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651189
Total Pages : 142 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Science and the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) by : Michael Mulkay

Download or read book Science and the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) written by Michael Mulkay and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-07 with total page 142 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How far is scientific knowledge a product of social life? In addressing this question, the major contributors to the sociology of knowledge have agreed that the conclusions of science are dependent on social action only in a very special and limited sense. In Science and the Sociology of Knowledge Michael Mulkay's first aim is to identify the philosophical assumptions which have led to this view of science as special; and to present a systematic critique of the standard philosophical account of science, showing that there are no valid epistemological grounds for excluding scientific knowledge from the scope of sociological analysis. The rest of the book is devoted to developing a preliminary interpretation of the social creation of scientific knowledge. The processes of knowledge-creation are delineated through a close examination of recent case studies of scientific developments. Dr Mulkay argues that knowledge is produced by means of negotiation, the outcome of which depends on the participants' use of social as well as technical resources. The analysis also shows how cultural resources are taken over from the broader social milieu and incorporated into the body of certified knowledge; and how, in the political context of society at large, scientists' technical as well as social claims are conditioned and affected by their social position.

Towards the Sociology of Knowledge

Download Towards the Sociology of Knowledge PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge Library Editions: Social Theory
ISBN 13 : 9781138985858
Total Pages : 488 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (858 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Towards the Sociology of Knowledge by : Gunter Werner Remmling

Download or read book Towards the Sociology of Knowledge written by Gunter Werner Remmling and published by Routledge Library Editions: Social Theory. This book was released on 2015-12-18 with total page 488 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The sociology of knowledge is an area of social scientific investigation with major emphasis on the relations between social life and intellectual activity. It is now an area central to most graduate and undergraduate courses in sociology. The present collection of readings explains the origins, systematic development, present state and possible future direction of the discipline. The major statements in the field were developed early in the twentieth century by Durkheim, Scheler and Mannheim, but the sociology of knowledge continues to engage the theoretical and empirical interests of contemporary sociologists who desire to penetrate the surface level of social existence. This book, with its carefully selected contributions and an introduction which relates the selections to the developmental pattern of the discipline, provides guidance and insight for the reader concerned with the topical issues raised by sociologists of knowledge.

Towards the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory)

Download Towards the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 100015579X
Total Pages : 472 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (1 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Towards the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) by : Gunter Werner Remmling

Download or read book Towards the Sociology of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) written by Gunter Werner Remmling and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2022-03-23 with total page 472 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The sociology of knowledge is an area of social scientific investigation with major emphasis on the relations between social life and intellectual activity. It is now an area central to most graduate and undergraduate courses in sociology. The present collection of readings explains the origins, systematic development, present state and possible future direction of the discipline. The major statements in the field were developed early in the twentieth century by Durkheim, Scheler and Mannheim, but the sociology of knowledge continues to engage the theoretical and empirical interests of contemporary sociologists who desire to penetrate the surface level of social existence. This book, with its carefully selected contributions and an introduction which relates the selections to the developmental pattern of the discipline, provides guidance and insight for the reader concerned with the topical issues raised by sociologists of knowledge.

Knowledge and Social Structure (RLE Social Theory)

Download Knowledge and Social Structure (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317634985
Total Pages : 172 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Knowledge and Social Structure (RLE Social Theory) by : Peter Hamilton

Download or read book Knowledge and Social Structure (RLE Social Theory) written by Peter Hamilton and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-13 with total page 172 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The primary concern of this study is to present, elucidate and analyse the developments which have characterized the sociology of knowledge, and which have set for it the outlines of its major problematics. Peter Hamilton examines the most distinctive approaches to the determinate relationship between knowledge and social structure. He considers the three main ‘pre-paradigms’ of the sociology of knowledge based on the work of Marx, Durkheim and Weber, and looks at the contribution of Scheler, Mannheim and phenomenological studies to this complex field. He explores the intellectual context, particularly that of Enlightenment philosophy, in which the problems involved in producing a sociology of knowledge first came to light. In conclusion, the author suggests an inclusive perspective for approaching the difficulties posed in any attempt to describe and explain relations between knowledge and social structure.

The Sociology of Karl Mannheim

Download The Sociology of Karl Mannheim PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 9781138990005
Total Pages : 270 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (9 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Sociology of Karl Mannheim by : Gunter Werner Remmling

Download or read book The Sociology of Karl Mannheim written by Gunter Werner Remmling and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-01-21 with total page 270 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) occupies a prominent position among the leading social scientists of the twentieth century; his ideas and his books are relevant for many issues engaging the concern of sociologists today. Mannheim's life spanned three cultural traditions - Hungarian, German and British - and in this authoritative study Professor Remmling covers all these phases in his life and work. Mannheim began as an idealistic philosopher, but soon began to make important contributions to the developing area of sociology of knowledge. After his emigration to England in 1933, Mannheim developed a theory of social planning to combat the socio-political consequences of the crisis of liberalism. During the Second World War his attention shifted to the ethical and religious values of Western humanism and the related role of mass education in democratic social planning. Finally, Mannheim forged the rudiments of a political sociology attacking the abuse of politico-military power and the resulting danger of a third world war, while simultaneously calling for counter-attack under the banner of planning for freedom on behalf of militant, fundamental democracy. In tracing these development in Karl Mannheim's work, Gunter Remmling provides insights into major theoretical and practical issues of the first half of the twentieth century, problems which remain central to the modern experience. A comprehensive bibliography is provided to introduce the sociology of knowledge and related topics, such as ideology, utopia, intellectuals, Weimar culture, and social planning.

Knowledge and Politics (RLE Social Theory)

Download Knowledge and Politics (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651626
Total Pages : 384 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Knowledge and Politics (RLE Social Theory) by : Volker Meja

Download or read book Knowledge and Politics (RLE Social Theory) written by Volker Meja and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-13 with total page 384 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Karl Mannheim’s Ideology and Utopia has been a profoundly provocative book. The debate about politics and social knowledge that was spawned by its original publication in 1929 attracted the most promising younger scholars, some of whom shaped the thought of several generations. The book became a focus for a debate on the methodological and epistemological problems confronting German social science. More than thirty major papers were published in response to Mannheim’s text. Writers such as Hannah Arendt, Ernst Robert Curtius, Max Horkheimer, Herbert Marcuse, Helmuth Plessner, Hans Speier and Paul Tillich were among the contributors. Their positions varied from seeing in the sociology of knowledge a sophisticated reformulation of the materialist conception of history to linking its popularity to a betrayal of Marxism. The English publication in 1936 defined formative issues for two generations of sociological self-reflection. Knowledge and Politics provides an introduction to the dispute and reproduces the leading contributions. It sheds new light on one of the greatest controversies that have marked German social science in the past hundred years.

The Rational and the Social (RLE Social Theory)

Download The Rational and the Social (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651294
Total Pages : 196 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Rational and the Social (RLE Social Theory) by : James Robert Brown

Download or read book The Rational and the Social (RLE Social Theory) written by James Robert Brown and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-21 with total page 196 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: To paraphrase Marx, sociologists have only interpreted science; the point is to improve it. The Rational and the Social attempts both. It begins by sketching recent sociological approaches to science, notably the strong programme – Bloor’s ‘science of science’ and Barnes’s ‘finitism’ – and that of the ‘anthropologists in the lab’, Collins and Latour and Woolgar. The author argues that although sociological accounts are valuable in many respects, when morals are drawn about the structure and epistemology of science, they are badly flawed. In rejecting the sociological theory of science, it is not necessary to conclude that science develops without reference to the social. James Robert Brown argues for an alternative account. He proposes a novel way of viewing the history of science as a source of evidence for how to do good science and argues that the most important aspect of methodology is that it is comparative. Rival theories are evaluated by comparison and the contribution of the social to this process is inevitable and should be acknowledged. This is the challenge to science.

Interests and the Growth of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory)

Download Interests and the Growth of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651685
Total Pages : 122 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Interests and the Growth of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) by : Barry Barnes

Download or read book Interests and the Growth of Knowledge (RLE Social Theory) written by Barry Barnes and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-13 with total page 122 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Intriguingly different in approach from conventional works in the same area of inquiry, this study deals with the central problems and concerns of the sociology of knowledge as it has traditionally been conceived of. In other words, it is concerned with the relationship of knowledge, social interests and social structure, and with the various attempts which have been made to analyse the relationship. Barry Barnes takes the classic writings in the sociology of knowledge – by Marx, Lukács, Weber, Mannheim, Goldmann, Habermas and others – and uses them as resources in coming to grips with what he regards as the currently most interesting and significant questions in this area. This approach reflects one of the principal themes of the book itself. Knowledge, it is argued, is best treated as a resource available to those possessing it. This is the best perspective from which to understand its relationship to action and its historical significance; it is a perspective which avoids the problems of holding that knowledge is derivative, as well as those generated by the view that knowledge is a strong determinant of consciousness. the result is an unusual textbook, particularly valuable when read in conjunction with the original works it discusses.

Social Theory and Social Practice

Download Social Theory and Social Practice PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1351306189
Total Pages : 200 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (513 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Social Theory and Social Practice by : Hans L. Zetterberg

Download or read book Social Theory and Social Practice written by Hans L. Zetterberg and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018-04-24 with total page 200 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Social Theory and Social Practice is a unique effort at applied social theory. Hans L. Zetterberg believes that social research has now advanced so far that social scientists can give advice without being restricted to new research projects. They can use previously proven theories as the basis for sound practical recommendations. This approach has profound implications in the application of social science to problems in business management, labor strife, government decision-making, in such areas as education, health and human welfare. It remains a pioneering discourse for practitioners of social research and social policy. Zetterberg gives a searching review of the various ways in which social practitioners attempt to use the accumulated knowledge of social science. He proceeds with a compact summary of the knowledge of the academicians of social science, noting that practitioners are often unaware of much useful academic knowledge. The process by which this knowledge is transformed into practical advice is spelled out in detail, and is illustrated with examples from an actual consultation about problems faced by an art museum that wanted to increase its audience. Chapter 1 identifies the problem; chapter 2, "The Knowledge of Social Practitioners," outlines practitioners' reliance on scientific knowledge; chapter 3, "The Knowledge of Social Theorists," discusses sociological terms and sociological law; chapter 4, "The Practical Use of Social Theory through Scholarly Consultants," explores the actual specificity of social theory and its uses, while the concluding chapter examines the uses of consultants, covering some prerequisites for the successful use of applied science. The book rejects the widespread view that in order to put social science to use, we have to popularize its content. Zetterberg's approach is rather to translate a client's problem into a powerful theoretical statement, the solution to which is calculated and then presented to the client as down-to-earth advice. This volume will be of immediate interest to scholars in the field of social theory; to consultants and practitioners who give advice on social problems and policy decisions; and to executives who use advice from social scientists.

The Sociology of Karl Mannheim (RLE Social Theory)

Download The Sociology of Karl Mannheim (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000155773
Total Pages : 400 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (1 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Sociology of Karl Mannheim (RLE Social Theory) by : Gunter Werner Remmling

Download or read book The Sociology of Karl Mannheim (RLE Social Theory) written by Gunter Werner Remmling and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2020-09-10 with total page 400 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Karl Mannheim (1893-1947) occupies a prominent position among the leading social scientists of the twentieth century; his ideas and his books are relevant for many issues engaging the concern of sociologists today. Mannheim’s life spanned three cultural traditions – Hungarian, German and British – and in this authoritative study Professor Remmling covers all these phases in his life and work. Mannheim began as an idealistic philosopher, but soon began to make important contributions to the developing area of sociology of knowledge. After his emigration to England in 1933, Mannheim developed a theory of social planning to combat the socio-political consequences of the crisis of liberalism. During the Second World War his attention shifted to the ethical and religious values of Western humanism and the related role of mass education in democratic social planning. Finally, Mannheim forged the rudiments of a political sociology attacking the abuse of politico-military power and the resulting danger of a third world war, while simultaneously calling for counter-attack under the banner of planning for freedom on behalf of militant, fundamental democracy. In tracing these development in Karl Mannheim’s work, Gunter Remmling provides insights into major theoretical and practical issues of the first half of the twentieth century, problems which remain central to the modern experience. A comprehensive bibliography is provided to introduce the sociology of knowledge and related topics, such as ideology, utopia, intellectuals, Weimar culture, and social planning.

Marx and Mead (RLE Social Theory)

Download Marx and Mead (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651545
Total Pages : 172 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Marx and Mead (RLE Social Theory) by : Tom W. Goff

Download or read book Marx and Mead (RLE Social Theory) written by Tom W. Goff and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-13 with total page 172 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It has often been suggested that a resolution of issues generated by the sociological study of ideas might be reached through a synthesis of specific insights to be found in the works of Karl Marx and George Herbert Mead. The present study originated in an investigation of this hypothesis, particularly as it bears on the central issue of sociological relativism. The author began by delineating the specific problems such a synthesis might resolve, and in the process became aware that the nature and depth of differences separating the sociology of knowledge and its critics have never been fully analysed or understood. This volume therefore opens with a clarification of these differences, a clarification which leads to considerable redefinition of the problem as it has traditionally been understood by critics and proponents of the discipline alike. The author points out in particular that it is less a debate than a thorough-going contradiction which characterizes the literature dealing with the inadequacies of various formulations of the sociology of knowledge. In consequence, the study of Marx and Mead presented here is not simply yet another effort to discover a perspective which will satisfy the particular demands of the critics. Rather, it argues that an adequate perspective fully consistent with the central insight of the discipline – that knowledge is radically social in character – is to be found in a synthesis of elements in the perspectives of Marx and Mead.

Sociology and the Demystification of the Modern World (RLE Social Theory)

Download Sociology and the Demystification of the Modern World (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 131765076X
Total Pages : 286 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Sociology and the Demystification of the Modern World (RLE Social Theory) by : John Rex

Download or read book Sociology and the Demystification of the Modern World (RLE Social Theory) written by John Rex and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-21 with total page 286 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Professor Rex’s controversial book concerns not only those who are professional sociologists but all thinking people who live in the modern world. One of the objects of sociology is to give ‘power to the people’, to make a contribution to the understanding of political problems. Rex writes from a deep conviction that sociology is a subject whose insights should be made available to the great mass of the people, so that they may liberate themselves from the mystification of social reality that is continually and routinely presented to them through the media, by those who exercise power and by those who have influence. The book is dedicated to St Augustine and Franz Fanon, both of whom, Rex points out, were conscious of living in an age which was embarking on a new barbarism, but had the courage to use their intellects to help understand the possibility of a better future. Rex continues in this tradition, and his main preoccupations are reflected in the present book. It includes a discussion of the problem of social knowledge, an analysis of the basic problems of theory building, and, with the aid of concepts derived from Max Weber, an attempt to understand the major problems of the first, second and third worlds. The author also looks at social structures and moral perspectives, and discusses the vocation of a sociologist in a collapsing civilisation. The book is certain to stimulate debate, both in sociological and political fields and more generally, and is also a serious contribution to the discussion of the methodology and purposes of sociology.

Sociological Theory in Transition (RLE Social Theory)

Download Sociological Theory in Transition (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651006
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Sociological Theory in Transition (RLE Social Theory) by : Mark L. Wardell

Download or read book Sociological Theory in Transition (RLE Social Theory) written by Mark L. Wardell and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-07 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Current sociological theories appear to have lost their general persuasiveness in part because, unlike the theories of the ‘classical era’, they fail to maintain an integrated stance toward society, and the practical role that sociology plays in society. The authors explore various facets of this failure and possibilities for reconstructing sociological theories as integrated wholes capable of conveying a moral and political immediacy. They discuss the evolution of several concepts (for example, the social, structure, and self) and address the significant disputes (for example, structuralism versus humanism, and individual versus society) that have dominated twentieth-century sociological thought. Their ideas and analyses are directed towards an audience of students and theorists who are coming to terms with the project of sociological theory, and its relationship with moral discourses and political practice. The authors of these essays are sociological theorists from the United States, the United Kingdom and Canada. They are all established, but not ‘establishment’ authors. The book contains no orthodoxies, and no answers. However, the essays do contribute to identifying the range of issues that will constitute the agenda for the next generation of sociological theorists.

EBOOK: Science, Social Theory & Public Knowledge

Download EBOOK: Science, Social Theory & Public Knowledge PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : McGraw-Hill Education (UK)
ISBN 13 : 0335225896
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (352 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis EBOOK: Science, Social Theory & Public Knowledge by : Alan Irwin

Download or read book EBOOK: Science, Social Theory & Public Knowledge written by Alan Irwin and published by McGraw-Hill Education (UK). This book was released on 2003-10-16 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How might social theory, public understanding of science and science policy best inform one another? What have been the key features of science-society relations in the modern world? How are we to re-think science-society relations in the context of globalization, hybridity and changing patterns of governance? This topical and unique book draws together the three key perspectives on science-society relations: public understanding of science, scientific and public governance, and social theory. The book presents a series of case studies (including the debates on genetically modified foods and the AIDS movement in the USA) to discuss critically the ways in which social theorists, social scientists, and science policy makers deal with science-society relations. ‘Science' and 'society' combine in many complex ways. Concepts such as citizenship, expertise, governance, democracy and the public need to be re-thought in the context of contemporary concerns with globalization and hybridity. A radical new approach is developed and the notion of ethno-epistemic assemblage is used to articulate a new series of questions for the theorization, empirical study and politics of science-society relations.

Introduction to the Social Sciences (RLE Social Theory)

Download Introduction to the Social Sciences (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000155897
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (1 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Introduction to the Social Sciences (RLE Social Theory) by : Maurice Duverger

Download or read book Introduction to the Social Sciences (RLE Social Theory) written by Maurice Duverger and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2020-09-10 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Professor Duverger at last provides the student with an overall view of the methodology of the social sciences. He briefly traces the origin of the notion of a social science, showing how it emerged from social philosophy. Its essential elements and pre-conditions are described; the splintering of social science into specialist disciplines is explained, and the need for a general sociology confirmed. The techniques of observation used by social scientists are dealt with in some detail and the unity of the social sciences is illustrated by examples of the universal application of these techniques. Documentary evidence in its various forms are described along with the basic analytical techniques, including quantitative methods and content analysis. Other methods of gathering information through polls, interviews, attitude scales and participant observation are all described. Professor Duverger brings together the different kinds of analysis used to assess the information thus gathered. Arguing that observing and theorizing are not two different stages or levels of research, he examines the practical value and difficulties of general sociological theories, partial theories and models and working hypotheses. He both describes and assesses the limitations of experiment and the scope of comparative methods in the social sciences. He then gives elementary instructions for using and assessing the value of mathematical techniques. The possibilities of presenting social phenomena through graphs and charts are also explored. There are useful book lists and diagrams.

Approaches to Sociology (RLE Social Theory)

Download Approaches to Sociology (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317652525
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Approaches to Sociology (RLE Social Theory) by : John Rex

Download or read book Approaches to Sociology (RLE Social Theory) written by John Rex and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-21 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: These essays, commissioned by John Rex, reflect the state of sociology in Britain today. Leading representatives of the diverse ‘schools’ provide lucid accounts of their own particular approaches to this complex discipline and in doing so demonstrate the techniques described. Topics covered include the empirical study of stratification, social evolution, survey techniques, mathematical sociology, systems theory, phenomenological approaches, Weberian sociology, structuralism, contemporary Marxism, and the development of theory after Talcott Parsons.

Matters of Fact (RLE Social Theory)

Download Matters of Fact (RLE Social Theory) PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317651502
Total Pages : 134 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Matters of Fact (RLE Social Theory) by : Stanley Raffel

Download or read book Matters of Fact (RLE Social Theory) written by Stanley Raffel and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2014-08-21 with total page 134 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Facts may seem to be independent, but in this study Stanley Raffle looks at them as expressions of commitment. Medical records, he believes, furnish a principal example of the actively oriented character of the factual commitment, and he draws on his experience of research among the records of a large modern hospital to demonstrate this. He describes how records are produced and reorganized as records, and discusses the grounds which provide for all the features of the records. He looks at the act of ‘observation’ in many apparently and concretely different places, and analyses the activity of noticing, viewing, recording a spectacle, where what is observed supposedly remains untouched by the observing. Dr Raffel goes on to show that observation, events, records and criteria of assessment such as reliability and completeness lose their status as unexplicated verities and become, instead, decisive and consequential courses of action. He points out, too, that the Socratic dialogues exemplify an orientation to commitment that even medical records, paradoxically, require if they are to be the matters of fact that they are.