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The Impact Of Us School Closures On Labor Market Outcomes During The Covid 19 Pandemic
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Book Synopsis The Impact of U.S. School Closures on Labor Market Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic by : Kairon Shayne D. Garcia
Download or read book The Impact of U.S. School Closures on Labor Market Outcomes During the COVID-19 Pandemic written by Kairon Shayne D. Garcia and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A substantial fraction of k-12 schools in the United States closed their in-person operations during the COVID-19 pandemic. These closures may have altered the labor supply decisions of parents of affected children due to a need to be at home with children during the school day. In this paper, we examine the impact of school closures on parental labor market outcomes. We test whether COVID-19 school closures have a disproportionate impact on parents of school-age children (ages 5-17 years old). Our results show that both women's and men's work lives were affected by school closures, with both groups seeing a reduction in work hours and the likelihood of working full-time but only women being less likely to work at all. We also find that closures had a corresponding negative effect on the earnings of parents of school-aged children. These effects are concentrated among parents without a college degree and parents working in occupations that do not lend themselves to telework, suggesting that such individuals had a more difficult time adjusting their work lives to school closures.
Book Synopsis The COVID-19 Pandemic’s Evolving Impacts on the Labor Market by : Brad J. Hershbein
Download or read book The COVID-19 Pandemic’s Evolving Impacts on the Labor Market written by Brad J. Hershbein and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 48 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this paper, we shed light on the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on the labor market, and how they have evolved over most of the year 2020. Relying primarily on microdata from the CPS and state-level data on virus caseloads, mortality, and policy restrictions, we consider a range of employment outcomes—including permanent layoffs, which generate large and lasting costs—and how these outcomes vary across demographic groups, occupations, and industries over time. We also examine how these employment patterns vary across different states, according to the timing and severity of virus caseloads, deaths, and closure measures. We find that the labor market recovery of the summer and early fall stagnated in late fall and early winter. As noted by others, we find low-wage and minority workers are hardest hit initially, but that recoveries have varied, and not always consistently, between Blacks and Hispanics. Statewide business closures and other restrictions on economic activity reduce employment rates concurrently but do not seem to have lingering effects once relaxed. In contrast, virus deaths—but not caseloads—not only depress current employment but produce accumulating harm. We conclude with policy options for states to repair their labor markets.
Book Synopsis Primary and Secondary Education During Covid-19 by : Fernando M. Reimers
Download or read book Primary and Secondary Education During Covid-19 written by Fernando M. Reimers and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-09-14 with total page 467 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This open access edited volume is a comparative effort to discern the short-term educational impact of the covid-19 pandemic on students, teachers and systems in Brazil, Chile, Finland, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Singapore, Spain, South Africa, the United Kingdom and the United States. One of the first academic comparative studies of the educational impact of the pandemic, the book explains how the interruption of in person instruction and the variable efficacy of alternative forms of education caused learning loss and disengagement with learning, especially for disadvantaged students. Other direct and indirect impacts of the pandemic diminished the ability of families to support children and youth in their education. For students, as well as for teachers and school staff, these included the economic shocks experienced by families, in some cases leading to food insecurity and in many more causing stress and anxiety and impacting mental health. Opportunity to learn was also diminished by the shocks and trauma experienced by those with a close relative infected by the virus, and by the constrains on learning resulting from students having to learn at home, where the demands of schoolwork had to be negotiated with other family necessities, often sharing limited space. Furthermore, the prolonged stress caused by the uncertainty over the resolution of the pandemic and resulting from the knowledge that anyone could be infected and potentially lose their lives, created a traumatic context for many that undermined the necessary focus and dedication to schoolwork. These individual effects were reinforced by community effects, particularly for students and teachers living in communities where the multifaceted negative impacts resulting from the pandemic were pervasive. This is an open access book.
Book Synopsis Potential Economic Impact of COVID-19-related School Closures by : Spencer Cohen
Download or read book Potential Economic Impact of COVID-19-related School Closures written by Spencer Cohen and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Severe disruptions in school education during the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic has impacted children through their formative years which will affect their employment opportunities and earning potential for many years after school ages. This paper examines the medium-to-long-term economic scarring effects, using data available through the Global Trade Analysis Project, a computable general equilibrium model, with empirical study focusing on the impact of school closures on economic growth and employment. The estimated results show significant declines in global gross domestic product (GDP) and employment. Moreover, the losses in global GDP and employment increase over time. Declines in global GDP amount to 0.19% in 2024, 0.64% in 2028, and 1.11% in 2030. In absolute terms, the cost to the global economy in 2030 alone is $943 billion. The scarring effects are greater in economies with significant student populations from rural areas, those in the poorest and second wealth quintile. Learning and earning losses are also significant in economies where the share of unskilled labor employment in the overall labor force is high.
Book Synopsis Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market Outcomes by : Sumedha Gupta
Download or read book Effects of Social Distancing Policy on Labor Market Outcomes written by Sumedha Gupta and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper examines the impact of the social distancing policies states adopted between March and April of 2020 in response to the COVID-19 epidemic. These actions, together with voluntary social distancing, appear to have reduced the rate of new COVID-19 cases and deaths, but raised concerns about the costs experienced by workers and businesses. Estimates from difference-in-difference models that leverage cross-state variation in the timing of business closures and stay-at-home mandates suggest that the employment rate fell by about 1.7 percentage points for every extra 10 days that a state experienced a stay-at-home mandate during the period March 12-April 12, 2020; select business closure laws were associated with similar employment effects. Our estimates imply that about 40% of the 12 percentage point decline in employment rates between January and April 2020 was due to a nationwide shock while about 60% was driven by state social distancing policies. The negative employment effects of state policies were larger for workers in "non-essential" industries, workers without a college degree, and early-career workers. Policy caused relatively modest changes in hours worked and earnings among those who remain employed. We find no concerning evidence of pre-trends in the monthly (low-frequency) CPS data, but use high-frequency data on work-related mobility measured from cellphones, job-loss-related internet searches, and initial unemployment claims to investigate the possibility that the large employment effects experienced in April could have occurred after the March CPS but but before policy adoption. In those analyses, we find pre-trends for some outcomes but not others. Thus we cannot fully rule out that some employment effects shortly predated the policies. As states relax business closures, ensuring gains in labor market activities in ways that continue to mitigate COVID-19 "surges" and public health risks will be key considerations to monitor.
Book Synopsis Less Work, More Labor: School Closures and Work Hours During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Austria by : Lisa Hanzl
Download or read book Less Work, More Labor: School Closures and Work Hours During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Austria written by Lisa Hanzl and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent increase in caregiving demands threaten to reverse decades of progress in integrating women into the labor market. This paper explores the gendered impact of school and day care closures on paid work hours during the COVID-19 pandemic in Austria. We use data from the Austrian Corona Panel Project (ACPP), which covers the period from March 2020 to March 2021, augmented by unique data on school closures for under 14-year olds, as well as data on school and workplace closures from the Oxford COVID-19 Government Response Tracker (OCGRT) data base in order to study the differential adjustments in work hours by gender and parental status over the course of the pandemic. Austria is a particularly interesting case for investigating the links between school closures and the labor supply, since school closures constituted one of the main pillars of COVID-19 pandemic policies, and these in turn were highly volatile. Descriptive data show that both women and men severely cut their working time especially in the first months of the pandemic in spring 2020. However, after work hours stabilized around July 2020, mothers reduced work hours more than fathers in periods with mandatory school closures. Controlling for socio-economic as well as work time variables, an OLS model shows that mothers reduced their work time on top of being female and a parent. A fixed-effects model indicates that women in general reduced their working hours more than men during school closures. This effect is predominantly driven by mothers, whose weekly work hours fell by an economically and statistically significant 22 percent on average, or approximately 5.8 hours, when schools were closed. In contrast, we cannot confirm a statistically significant change in work hours for fathers. Since we also find an effect of school closures on the work time of childless women and men, the variable may in fact capture indirect policy effects and thus represent the tightness of COVID-19 measures. This hypothesis is confirmed by a robustness check: School closures for over 14 year-olds now only affect childless individuals, whereas school closures for under 14 year-olds mainly affect their mothers. The results are robust to model choice. Finally, a logit model for the labor force participation shows robust gender and parental effects, but fails to confirm the effect of school closures. This may be due to the pandemic policy in Austria, which was aimed at maintaining employment mainly through short-time work. These findings suggest that (post-) pandemic policy should focus on counteracting this potential weaker labor market attachment of mothers, in particular by restoring safe and reliable school service.
Book Synopsis The Human Capital Index 2020 Update by : World Bank
Download or read book The Human Capital Index 2020 Update written by World Bank and published by World Bank Publications. This book was released on 2021-05-05 with total page 301 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Human capital—the knowledge, skills, and health that people accumulate over their lives—is a central driver of sustainable growth, poverty reduction, and successful societies. More human capital is associated with higher earnings for people, higher income for countries, and stronger cohesion in societies. Much of the hard-won human capital gains in many economies over the past decade is at risk of being eroded by the COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic. Urgent action is needed to protect these advances, particularly among the poor and vulnerable. Designing the needed interventions, targeting them to achieve the highest effectiveness, and navigating difficult trade-offs make investing in better measurement of human capital now more important than ever. The Human Capital Index (HCI)—launched in 2018 as part of the Human Capital Project—is an international metric that benchmarks the key components of human capital across economies. The HCI is a global effort to accelerate progress toward a world where all children can achieve their full potential. Measuring the human capital that children born today can expect to attain by their 18th birthdays, the HCI highlights how current health and education outcomes shape the productivity of the next generation of workers and underscores the importance of government and societal investments in human capital. The Human Capital Index 2020 Update: Human Capital in the Time of COVID-19 presents the first update of the HCI, using health and education data available as of March 2020. It documents new evidence on trends, examples of successes, and analytical work on the utilization of human capital. The new data—collected before the global onset of COVID-19—can act as a baseline to track its effects on health and education outcomes. The report highlights how better measurement is essential for policy makers to design effective interventions and target support. In the immediate term, investments in better measurement and data use will guide pandemic containment strategies and support for those who are most affected. In the medium term, better curation and use of administrative, survey, and identification data can guide policy choices in an environment of limited fiscal space and competing priorities. In the longer term, the hope is that economies will be able to do more than simply recover lost ground. Ambitious, evidence-driven policy measures in health, education, and social protection can pave the way for today’s children to surpass the human capital achievements and quality of life of the generations that preceded them.
Book Synopsis Essays in Labor Market Dynamics and Policy Implications During COVID-19 and Beyond by : Lien Ta
Download or read book Essays in Labor Market Dynamics and Policy Implications During COVID-19 and Beyond written by Lien Ta and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This thesis comprises three chapters that delve into various labor market dynamics and the policy implications in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and its aftermath. In the first chapter (joint with Andre Kurmann and Etienne Lale), we investigate the dynamics of small businesses and employment using real-time data from the private sector throughout the COVID-19 crisis. The pandemic has led to an explosion of research using private-sector data to measure small business activity. Yet important questions remain about sample representativeness and how to identify business openings and closings. We propose new methods to address these issues by exploiting information on business activity from Google, Facebook, and Safegraph. We apply our methods to Homebase data and show that the resulting estimates closely fit official statistics. We then use the data to study whether small businesses have been hit harder by the pandemic and the extent to which the Paycheck Protection Program helped mitigate these effects. The second chapter (joint with Andreas Hornstein, Marios Karabarbounis, Andre Kurmann, Etienne Lale) focus on the effects of pandemic unemployment insurance (UI) benefits. UI acts as both a disincentive for labor supply and as a stimulus for labor demand. In equilibrium, the two effects combine, which may explain why several studies have found only small negative effects of the generous UI expansions during the pandemic on job finding rates and employment. In this paper we propose a new research design to estimate independently the disincentive effects of pandemic unemployment benefits. Using high-frequency worker-firm matched data from Homebase, we document that employment of low-wage businesses recovered more slowly from the initial pandemic shock than neighboring high-wage businesses, and that this recovery gap is significantly related to the relative generosity of UI benefits. By comparing neighboring businesses that are largely sharing the benefits of the local UI stimulus, our research design identifies more closely the disincentive effects of pandemic UI benefits. We use an equilibrium model of labor search with heterogeneity in firms and workers to translate the reduced-form estimate of the recovery gap into an unemployment duration elasticity and an aggregate employment loss. Our model, which captures well the recovery gap between low- and high-wage businesses, implies relatively low duration elasticities. Yet, the sheer size and multitude of the pandemic programs implies that the disincentive effects arising from the pandemic UI benefits are substantial and amount to 5 percent of normal employment. The third chapter studies work-from-home (WFH) work mode's implications on labor market. The COVID-19 pandemic has triggered a widespread adoption of WFH practices and accelerated the advancement of remote work technologies. Surprisingly, even after the pandemic has subsided, a substantial shift towards WFH remains evident among workers. However, the accessibility to WFH is not uniform across all types of workers. Notably, high-tech industries, characterized by a predominantly high-skilled workforce, exhibit a higher prevalence of WFH. This raises concerns about the effects of WFH on workers employed in industries where remote work is unfeasible. In this paper, I develop a spatial equilibrium model that incorporates WFH to examine the implications on workers' mobility, local market outcomes, and overall welfare. I find 3 key insights: (1) there is a productivity threshold for WFH adoption, (2) there is a one-way dependence of low-skilled workers on high-skilled workers' mobility, and (3) if workers are fully mobile, both types of workers benefit from the introduction of WFH.
Book Synopsis Is the Cure Worse Than the Problem Itself? by : Felipe A. Lozano Rojas
Download or read book Is the Cure Worse Than the Problem Itself? written by Felipe A. Lozano Rojas and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 15 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The relationship between population health and measures of economic well-being and economic activity is a long standing topic in health economics (Preston, 1975; Cutler, Deaton, and Lleras-Muney, 2006; Ruhm, 2000). The conceptual issues in analyzing the complicated link between health and economic well-being are central to understanding the implications of the COVID-19 epidemic in the United States The public health shock of the epidemic has direct economic impacts, but the mitigation policies governments are using to control the spread of the virus may also damage economic activity. We estimate how state job market conditions respond to state COVID-19 infections and school closures, which are the earliest of the major mitigation policies. Mitigation policies and local epidemiological conditions explain some of the variation in unemployment patterns. However, the historically unprecedented increase in new UI claims during the weeks of March 15-21 and March 22-28 was largely across-the-board and occurred in all states. This suggests most of the economic disruption was driven by the health shock itself. Put differently, it appears that the labor market slowdown was due primarily to a nationwide response to evolving epidemiological conditions and that individual state policies and own epidemiologic situations have had a comparatively modest effect.
Book Synopsis Corona and Work around the Globe by : Andreas Eckert
Download or read book Corona and Work around the Globe written by Andreas Eckert and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2020-12-16 with total page 278 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a global perspective on the transformations in the world of work caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The collection of essays will break down the general statistics and trends into glimpses of concrete experiences of workers during pandemic, of workplaces transformed or destroyed, of workers protesting against political measures, of professions particularly exposed to the coronavirus, and also of the changing nature of some professions.
Book Synopsis Labor Market Effects of Global Supply Chain Disruptions by : Mauricio Ulate
Download or read book Labor Market Effects of Global Supply Chain Disruptions written by Mauricio Ulate and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: We examine the labor market consequences of recent global supply chain disruptions induced by COVID-19. Specifically, we consider a temporary increase in international trade costs similar to the one observed during the pandemic and analyze its effects on labor market outcomes using a quantitative trade model with downward nominal wage rigidities. Even omitting any health-related impacts of the pandemic, the increase in trade costs leads to a temporary but prolonged decline in U.S. labor force participation. However, there is a temporary increase in manufacturing employment as the United States is a net importer of manufactured goods, which become costlier to obtain from abroad. By contrast, service and agricultural employment experience temporary declines. Nominal frictions lead to temporary unemployment when the shock dissipates, but this depends on the degree of monetary accommodation. Overall, the shock results in a 0.14% welfare loss for the United States. The impact on labor force participation and welfare across countries varies depending on the initial degree of openness and sectoral deficits.
Book Synopsis A Survey on the Impact of Covid-19 on the Labor Market by : Ali Zarifhonarvar
Download or read book A Survey on the Impact of Covid-19 on the Labor Market written by Ali Zarifhonarvar and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Broader, Bolder, Better by : Elaine Weiss
Download or read book Broader, Bolder, Better written by Elaine Weiss and published by Harvard Education Press. This book was released on 2021-02-23 with total page 329 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Broader, Bolder, Better, authors Elaine Weiss, of the Broader, Bolder Approach to Education campaign, and Paul Reville, former Massachusetts secretary of education, make a compelling case for a fundamental change in the way we view education. The authors argue for a large-scale expansion of community-school partnerships in order to provide holistic, integrated student supports (ISS) from cradle to career, including traditional wraparound services like health, mental health, nutrition, and family supports, as well as expanded access to opportunities such as early childhood education, afterschool activities, and summer enrichment programs. The book builds on nearly a decade of research by the Broader, Bolder Approach to Education, a national initiative endorsed by more than sixty policy experts and leaders from across the country, and draws on the work of Harvard’s Education Redesign Lab. It pulls from case studies of effective ISS efforts in twelve diverse communities to illustrate the variety of strategies that can be adopted locally. A call to action that also provides examples of communities that are successfully leveling the playing field for poor children, this book offers a detailed vision for building—through field work, mobilization, and financing—comprehensive systems to prepare all children for success.
Book Synopsis School-University-Community Research in a (Post) COVID-19 World by : R. Martin Reardon
Download or read book School-University-Community Research in a (Post) COVID-19 World written by R. Martin Reardon and published by IAP. This book was released on 2023-07-01 with total page 343 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The American Psychological Association (2020) reported that some 81% of teenage children (13 to 17 years-of-age) were negatively impacted in a range of ways due to school closures in connection with COVID-19, including 47% who indicated that they “didn’t learn as much as they did in previous years” (para. 21). That perhaps many more than 47% of teenage children in the United States did not learn as much as they did in previous years was documented in the most recent National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) report which found that “the national average score declines in mathematics for fourth- and eighth-graders were the largest ever recorded in that subject” (Wilburn & Elias, 2022, para. 1). The National Center for Educational Statistics Commissioner commented somewhat hyperbolically that the results showed that “every student was vulnerable to the pandemic’s disruptions” (Wilburn & Elias, 2022, para. 5) and called for a single-minded emphasis on ways to assist students to recover from their trauma and accelerate their learning. Wilburn and Elias (2022) joined those who have pointed out that the learning declines associated with COVID-19 did not occur equitably. The likelihood of a single-minded policy response to change the system and address the achievement gaps exposed by the range of responses to COVID-19 seems small. On the one hand, doubting the sustainability of innovative responses, education historian Larry Cuban referenced the dominant stability of schooling which, if anything, “produces this huge public and professional need to resume schooling as it was” (Young, 2022, para. 18). On the other hand, diverse political agendas will diffuse concerted efforts. Grossman et al. (2021) discussed a pertinent example from Michigan where “public health data, partisanship, and collective bargaining” (p. 637) each played a role in determining school reopening decisions. On this same issue of school reopening, there is credible evidence from Massachusetts that the much maligned and politically explosive masking policies implemented in some schools may have saved lives (Cowger et al., 2022). Roy (2020) asserted that “historically, pandemics have forced humans to break with the past and imagine their world anew. This one is no different. It is a portal, a gateway between one world and the next” (para. 48). The chapters in this volume attest to the willingness of individuals to collaborate in stepping through that portal.
Book Synopsis An Approach to Predicting Regional Labor Market Effects of Economic Shocks by : Osborne Jackson
Download or read book An Approach to Predicting Regional Labor Market Effects of Economic Shocks written by Osborne Jackson and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic led state and local governments throughout New England and much of the nation to issue ordinances restricting activity that might otherwise contribute to the spread of the disease. Individuals also freely adjusted their behavior, hoping to reduce the chances of infecting themselves or others. As a result, many employers have experienced substantial reductions in sales revenue, which were expected to generate harmful effects on the labor market. Even though the reversal of mandated policies and voluntary behavior changes are well under way, the initial effects and ongoing public health concerns may extend the time needed for labor market outcomes to improve substantially. This study uses pre-pandemic employment data by occupation and a conceptual framework focused on labor costs to identify the subpopulation most vulnerable to the economic shock and predict layoffs and unemployment in the second quarter of 2020. The analysis allows for the possibility of wage cuts mitigating job losses. Further extensions incorporate indirect effects due to reduced product demand from directly affected workers, as well as offsetting effects of a federal policy response. Predicted second-quarter layoffs and unemployment due to the pandemic vary throughout New England, and such adverse labor market effects tend to be somewhat smaller in the region than in the country as a whole. Additionally, official estimates of unemployment from available second-quarter data fall within the range of predictions, after accounting for plausible measurement error. This approach, which builds on the work of other recent analysis, should be helpful in estimating the regional labor market impact of future economic shocks.
Book Synopsis The Short-Term Impact of COVID-19 on Labor Markets, Poverty and Inequality in Brazil by : International Monetary Fund
Download or read book The Short-Term Impact of COVID-19 on Labor Markets, Poverty and Inequality in Brazil written by International Monetary Fund and published by International Monetary Fund. This book was released on 2021-03-05 with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: We document the short-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Brazilian labor market focusing on employment, wages and hours worked using the nationally representative household surveys PNAD-Continua and PNAD COVID. Sectors most susceptible to the shock because they are more contact-intensive and less teleworkable, such as construction, domestic services and hospitality, suffered large job losses and reductions in hours. Given low income workers experienced the largest decline in earnings, extreme poverty and the Gini coefficient based on labor income increased by around 9.2 and 5 percentage points, respectively, due to the immediate shock. The government’s broad based, temporary Emergency Aid transfer program more than offset the labor income losses for the bottom four deciles, however, such that poverty relative to the pre-COVID baseline fell. At a cost of around 4 percent of GDP in 2020 such support is not fiscally sustainable beyond the short-term and ended in late 2020. The challenge will be to avoid a sharp increase in poverty and inequality if the labor market does not pick up sufficiently fast in 2021.
Book Synopsis The Effect of a Health and Economic Shock on the Gender, Ethnic and Racial Gap in Labor Market Outcomes by : Stefani Milovanska-Farrington
Download or read book The Effect of a Health and Economic Shock on the Gender, Ethnic and Racial Gap in Labor Market Outcomes written by Stefani Milovanska-Farrington and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With more than 29 million confirmed cases of Covid-19 in the U.S. and 119 million cases worldwide, the pandemic has affected companies, households and the global economy. We explore the effect of this health and economic shock on labor market outcomes, and the changes in labor market disparities between ethnic groups and genders. The results provide evidence of an adverse effect of Covid-19 on labor market outcomes of all demographic groups, a widening gap between the employment prospects of minorities and whites, but no change in the earnings gaps between racial and ethnic groups. We also do not find a deterioration of the differentials between genders. The findings have implications related to the priorities of policy decision makers when implementing policies to combat race and ethnic, and gender gaps in the labor market.
