Shakespeares Theory Of The Drama

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Shakespeare's Theory of Drama

Author : Pauline Kiernan
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521633581
Total Pages : 236 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (335 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare's Theory of Drama by : Pauline Kiernan

Download or read book Shakespeare's Theory of Drama written by Pauline Kiernan and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 1998-07-23 with total page 236 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Why did Shakespeare write drama? Did he have specific reasons for his choice of this art form? Did he have clearly defined aesthetic aims in what he wanted drama to do - and why? Pauline Kiernan opens up a new area of debate for Shakespearean criticism in showing that a radical, complex defence of drama which challenged the Renaissance orthodox view of poetry, history and art can be traced in Shakespeare's plays and poems. This study, first published in 1996, examines different stages in the canon to show that far from being restricted by the 'limitations' of drama, Shakespeare consciously exploits its capacity to accommodate temporality and change, and its reliance on the physical presence of the actor. This lively, readable book offers an original and scholarly insight into what Shakespeare wanted his drama to do and why.

Shakespeare and Social Theory

Author : BRADD. SHORE
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 9781032017174
Total Pages : 296 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (171 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare and Social Theory by : BRADD. SHORE

Download or read book Shakespeare and Social Theory written by BRADD. SHORE and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-08-23 with total page 296 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides a bridge between Shakespeare Studies and classical social theory, opening up readings of Shakespeare to a new audience outside of literary studies and the humanities. Shakespeare has long been known as a 'great thinker' and this book reads his plays through the lens of an anthropologist, revealing new connections between Shakespeare's plays and the lives we now lead. Close readings of a selection of frequently studied plays - Hamlet, The Winter's Tale, Romeo and Juliet, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Julius Caesar and King Lear - engage with the plays in detail while connecting them with some of the biggest questions we all ask ourselves, about love, friendship, ritual, language, human interactions and the world around us. The plays are examined through various social theories including performance theory, cognitive theory, semiotics, exchange theory and structuralism. The book concludes with a consideration of how "the new astronomy" of his day and developments in optics changed the very idea of "perspective," and shaped Shakespeare's approach to embedding social theory in his dramatic texts. This accessible and engaging book will appeal to those approaching Shakespeare from outside literary studies, but will also be valuable to literature students approaching Shakespeare for the first time, or looking for a new angle on the plays.

Shakespeare's Dramatic Genres

Author : Lawrence Danson
Publisher : Oxford Shakespeare Topics
ISBN 13 : 9780198711728
Total Pages : 172 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (117 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare's Dramatic Genres by : Lawrence Danson

Download or read book Shakespeare's Dramatic Genres written by Lawrence Danson and published by Oxford Shakespeare Topics. This book was released on 2000 with total page 172 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Oxford Shakespeare Topics provides students, teachers, and interested readers with short books on important aspects of Shakespeare criticism and scholarship. Each book is written by an authority in its field, and combines accessible style with original discussion of its subject. Notes and a critical guide to further reading equip the interested reader with the means to broaden research. The history of the genres, or kinds, of drama is one of contradictory traditions and complex cultural assumptions. The divisions established by the original edition of Mr. William Shakespeare's Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies (the First Folio, 1623) give shape to whole curricula; but, as Lawrence Danson reminds us in this lively book, there is nothing inevitable, and much unsatisfying, about that tripartite scheme. Yet students of Shakespeare cannot avoid thinking about questions of genre; often they are the unspoken reason why classrooms full of smart people fail to agree on basic interpretative issues. Danson's guide to the kinds of Shakespearian drama provides an accessible account of genre-theory in Shakespeare's day, an overview of the genres on the Elizabethan stage, and a provocative look at the full range of Shakespeare's comedies, histories, and tragedies.

Shakespeare’s Things

Author : Brett Gamboa
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000750922
Total Pages : 262 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (7 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare’s Things by : Brett Gamboa

Download or read book Shakespeare’s Things written by Brett Gamboa and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-11-19 with total page 262 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Floating daggers, enchanted handkerchiefs, supernatural storms, and moving statues have tantalized Shakespeare’s readers and audiences for centuries. The essays in Shakespeare’s Things: Shakespearean Theatre and the Non-Human World in History, Theory, and Performance renew attention to non-human influence and agency in the plays, exploring how Shakespeare anticipates new materialist thought, thing theory, and object studies while presenting accounts of intention, action, and expression that we have not yet noticed or named. By focusing on the things that populate the plays—from commodities to props, corpses to relics—they find that canonical Shakespeare, inventor of the human, gives way to a lesser-known figure, a chronicler of the ceaseless collaboration among persons, language, the stage, the object world, audiences, the weather, the earth, and the heavens.

Family Dramas

Author : Gwyn Daniel
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429812396
Total Pages : 388 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (298 download)

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Book Synopsis Family Dramas by : Gwyn Daniel

Download or read book Family Dramas written by Gwyn Daniel and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018-11-15 with total page 388 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Most of Shakespeare’s tragedies have a family drama at their heart. This book brings these relationships to life, offering a radical new perspective on the tragic heroes and their dilemmas. Family Dramas: Intimacy, Power and Systems in Shakespeare's Tragedies focusses on the interactions and dialogues between people on stage, linking their intimate emotional worlds to wider social and political contexts. Since family relationships absorb and enact social ideologies, their conflicts often expose the conflicts that all ideologies contain. The complexities, contradictions and ambiguities of Shakespeare’s portrayals of individuals and their relationships are brought to life, while wider power structures and social discourses are shown to reach into the heart of intimate relationships and personal identity. Surveying relevant literature from Shakespeare studies, the book introduces the ideas behind the family systems approach to literary criticism. Explorations of gender relationships feature particularly strongly in the analysis since it is within gender that intimacy and power most compellingly intersect and frequently collide. For Shakespeare lovers and psychotherapists alike, this application of systemic theory opens a new perspective on familiar literary territory.

Shakespeare's Theatre

Author : Peter Thomson
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136113568
Total Pages : 221 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (361 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare's Theatre by : Peter Thomson

Download or read book Shakespeare's Theatre written by Peter Thomson and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-06-17 with total page 221 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Reviews of the First Edition `...valuable and enjoyable reading for all studying Shakespeare's plays.' Following in the patternestablished by John Russell Brown for the excellent series (Theatre and Production Studies), he provides first an account of Shakespeare's company, then a study of three individual plays Twelfth Night, Hamlet and Macbeth as performed by the company. Peter Thomson writes in a crisp, sharp, enlivening style.' TLS '`...the best analysis yet of Elizabethan acting practices, excavated form the texts themselves rather than reconstructed on basis of one monolithic theory, and an essay on Hamlet that is a model of Critical intelligence and theatrical invention.' Yearbook of English Studies `Synthesizes the important facts and summarizes projects with a vigorous prose style, and expertly applies his experience in both practical drama and academic teaching to his discussion.' Review of English Studies

Shakespeare's Folly

Author : Sam Hall
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317223608
Total Pages : 215 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (172 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare's Folly by : Sam Hall

Download or read book Shakespeare's Folly written by Sam Hall and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-06-23 with total page 215 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This study contends that folly is of fundamental importance to the implicit philosophical vision of Shakespeare’s drama. The discourse of folly’s wordplay, jubilant ironies, and vertiginous paradoxes furnish Shakespeare with a way of understanding that lays bare the hypocrisies and absurdities of the serious world. Like Erasmus, More, and Montaigne before him, Shakespeare employs folly as a mode of understanding that does not arrogantly insist upon the veracity of its own claims – a fool’s truth, after all, is spoken by a fool. Yet, as this study demonstrates, Shakespearean folly is not the sole preserve of professional jesters and garrulous clowns, for it is also apparent on a thematic, conceptual, and formal level in virtually all of his plays. Examining canonical histories, comedies, and tragedies, this study is the first to either contextualize Shakespearean folly within European humanist thought, or to argue that Shakespeare’s philosophy of folly is part of a subterranean strand of Western philosophy, which itself reflects upon the folly of the wise. This strand runs from the philosopher-fool Socrates through to Montaigne and on to Nietzsche, but finds its most sustained expression in the Critical Theory of the mid to late twentieth-century, when the self-destructive potential latent in rationality became an historical reality. This book makes a substantial contribution to the fields of Shakespeare, Renaissance humanism, Critical Theory, and Literature and Philosophy. It illustrates, moreover, how rediscovering the philosophical potential of folly may enable us to resist the growing dominance of instrumental thought in the cultural sphere.

Shakespeare and Literary Theory

Author : Jonathan Gil Harris
Publisher : OUP Oxford
ISBN 13 : 0191614416
Total Pages : 240 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (916 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare and Literary Theory by : Jonathan Gil Harris

Download or read book Shakespeare and Literary Theory written by Jonathan Gil Harris and published by OUP Oxford. This book was released on 2010-08-19 with total page 240 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: OXFORD SHAKESPEARE TOPICS General Editors: Peter Holland and Stanley Wells Oxford Shakespeare Topics provide students and teachers with short books on important aspects of Shakespeare criticism and scholarship. Each book is written by an authority in its field, and combines accessible style with original discussion of its subject. How is it that the British literary critic Terry Eagleton can say that 'it is difficult to read Shakespeare without feeling that he was almost certainly familiar with the writings of Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche, Freud, Wittgenstein and Derrida', or that the Slovenian psychoanalytic theorist Slavoj Žižek can observe that 'Shakespeare without doubt had read Lacan'? Shakespeare and Literary Theory argues that literary theory is less an external set of ideas anachronistically imposed on Shakespeare's texts than a mode - or several modes - of critical reflection inspired by, and emerging from, his writing. These modes together constitute what we might call 'Shakespearian theory': theory that is not just about Shakespeare but also derives its energy from Shakespeare. To name just a few examples: Karl Marx was an avid reader of Shakespeare and used Timon of Athens to illustrate aspects of his economic theory; psychoanalytic theorists from Sigmund Freud to Jacques Lacan have explained some of their most axiomatic positions with reference to Hamlet; Michel Foucault's early theoretical writing on dreams and madness returns repeatedly to Macbeth; Jacques Derrida's deconstructive philosophy is articulated in dialogue with Shakespeare's plays, including Romeo and Juliet; French feminism's best-known essay is Hélène Cixous's meditation on Antony and Cleopatra; certain strands of queer theory derive their impetus from Eve Kosofsky Sedgwick's reading of the Sonnets; Gilles Deleuze alights on Richard III as an exemplary instance of his theory of the war machine; and postcolonial theory owes a large debt to Aimé Césaire's revision of The Tempest. By reading what theoretical movements from formalism and structuralism to cultural materialism and actor-network theory have had to say about and in concert with Shakespeare, we can begin to get a sense of how much the DNA of contemporary literary theory contains a startling abundance of chromosomes - concepts, preoccupations, ways of using language - that are of Shakespearian provenance.

Shakespeare's Double Plays

Author : Brett Gamboa
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108417434
Total Pages : 303 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (84 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare's Double Plays by : Brett Gamboa

Download or read book Shakespeare's Double Plays written by Brett Gamboa and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2018-05-03 with total page 303 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Machine generated contents note: Introduction; 1. 'Improbable fictions: Shakespeare's plays without the plays; 2. Versatility and verisimilitude on sixteenth-century stages; 3. Doubling in The Winter's Tale; 4. Dramaturgical directives and Shakespeare's cast size; 5. Doubling in A Midsummer Night's Dream and Romeo and Juliet; 6. Where the boys aren't; 7. Doubling in Twelfth Night and Othello; Epilogue: Ragozine and Shakespearean substitution; Appendix; Bibliography; Index.

Shakespeare and the Book

Author : David Scott Kastan
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521786515
Total Pages : 168 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (865 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare and the Book by : David Scott Kastan

Download or read book Shakespeare and the Book written by David Scott Kastan and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2001-09-20 with total page 168 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An account of Shakespeare's plays as they were transformed from scripts into books.

A Theatre of Envy

Author : René Girard
Publisher : Gracewing Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9780852445105
Total Pages : 386 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (451 download)

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Book Synopsis A Theatre of Envy by : René Girard

Download or read book A Theatre of Envy written by René Girard and published by Gracewing Publishing. This book was released on 2000 with total page 386 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this groundbreaking work a foremost literary and cultural critic turns to the major figure in English literature William Shakespeare and proposes a dramatic new way of reading and performing his works. The key to A Theatre of Envy is René Girards's original expression and application of what he calls Mimetic Theory. For Girard, people desire according to the desires of others. He sees this as fundamental to the human condition and works out its implications in a most convincing and ultimately, easily comprehensible way. Bringing his insights to bear on Shakespeare, Girard reveals the previously overlooked coherence of problem plays like Troilus and Cressida and makes a convincing argument for elevating A Midsummer Night's Dream from the status of entertaining chaotic comedy to a profound and original commentary on the human condition. Shakespeare transforms the crude literary form of revenge tragedy into a profound and prophetic unmasking of violence - even more relevant today than in his time. Throughout this impressively sustained reading of Shakespeare, Girard's prose is sophisticated enough for the academic as well as being accessible to the general reader. Anyone interested in literature, anthropology, psychology and particularly, theology as relevant to the overriding contemporary problems of violence in all its forms will want to read this challenging book. All those involved in theatrical productions and performance will find A Theatre of Envy full of exciting and practical ideas. 'In its enormous breathtaking scope, (René Girard's work) suggests...the projects of those 19th century intellectual giants (Hegel, Marx, Nietzsche and Freud) who still cast such long shadows today. By contrast, contemporary criticism seems paltry and fainthearted.' Comparative Literature René Girard was born in Avignon, read cultural history in Paris and in 1947 went to the USA where he has for the last 50 years held a number of prestigious academic posts. He has written more than half a dozen books, best known of which are, Violence and the Sacred, The Scapegoat, and Things Hidden Since the Foundation of the World, he has also been featured in many interviews and magazine articles. His Martin D'Arcy Lecture - "Victims, Violence and Christianity" - delivered in Oxford in November 1997, aroused the enthusiastic interest of a wide variety of British experts in many fields as well as those involved in the wider and increasingly significant world of contemporary spirituality in all its popular and peremptory expressions. While not giving a naive answer René Girard does provide a profound and practical way to unmask violence not only in Shakespeare's world, but in our own.

Shakespeare, Theatre, and Time

Author : Matthew Wagner
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136661638
Total Pages : 181 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (366 download)

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Book Synopsis Shakespeare, Theatre, and Time by : Matthew Wagner

Download or read book Shakespeare, Theatre, and Time written by Matthew Wagner and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2013-03-01 with total page 181 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: That Shakespeare thematized time thoroughly, almost obsessively, in his plays is well established: time is, among other things, a 'devourer' (Love's Labour's Lost), one who can untie knots (Twelfth Night), or, perhaps most famously, simply ‘out of joint’ (Hamlet). Yet most critical commentary on time and Shakespeare tends to incorporate little focus on time as an essential - if elusive - element of stage praxis. This book aims to fill that gap; Wagner's focus is specifically performative, asking after time as a stage phenomenon rather than a literary theme or poetic metaphor. His primary approach is phenomenological, as the book aims to describe how time operates on Shakespearean stages. Through philosophical, historiographical, dramaturgical, and performative perspectives, Wagner examines the ways in which theatrical activity generates a manifest presence of time, and he demonstrates Shakespeare’s acute awareness and manipulation of this phenomenon. Underpinning these investigations is the argument that theatrical time, and especially Shakespearean time, is rooted in temporal conflict and ‘thickness’ (the heightened sense of the present moment bearing the weight of both the past and the future). Throughout the book, Wagner traces the ways in which time transcends thematic and metaphorical functions, and forms an essential part of Shakespearean stage praxis.

Impressive Shakespeare

Author : Harry Newman
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317118324
Total Pages : 326 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (171 download)

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Book Synopsis Impressive Shakespeare by : Harry Newman

Download or read book Impressive Shakespeare written by Harry Newman and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-01-16 with total page 326 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Impressive Shakespeare reassesses Shakespeare’s relationship with "print culture" in light of his plays’ engagement with the language and material culture of three interrelated "impressing technologies": wax sealing, coining, and typographic printing. It analyses the material and rhetorical forms through which drama was thought to "imprint" early modern audiences and readers with ideas, morals and memories, and—looking to our own cultural moment—shows how Shakespeare has been historically constructed as an "impressive" dramatist. Through material readings of four plays—Coriolanus, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, Measure for Measure and The Winter’s Tale—Harry Newman argues that Shakespeare deploys the imprint as a self-reflexive trope in order to advertise the value of his plays to audiences and readers, and that in turn the language of impression has shaped, and continues to shape, Shakespeare’s critical afterlife. The book pushes the boundaries of what we understand by "print culture", and challenges assumptions about the emergence of concepts now central to Shakespeare’s perceived canonical value, such as penetrating characterisation, poetic transformation, and literary fatherhood. Harry Newman’s suggestive analysis of techniques and tropes of sealing, coining and printing produces a revelatory account of Shakespearean creative poetics. It’s sustainedly startling in its rereading of familiar lines - but the chapter I found most original is on Measure for Measure: Newman is the first critic to attempt to interpret the play’s authorial status as part of its own thematic and linguistic interrogation of illegitimacy and counterfeiting. He makes authorship matter in a literary and creative, rather than a quantitative and statistical, sense. Impressive Shakespeare is a brilliant scholarly debut. - Emma Smith Editor, Shakespeare Survey Professor of Shakespeare Studies, Hertford College, Oxford

Desire and Anxiety (Routledge Revivals)

Author : Valerie Traub
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317619749
Total Pages : 195 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

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Book Synopsis Desire and Anxiety (Routledge Revivals) by : Valerie Traub

Download or read book Desire and Anxiety (Routledge Revivals) written by Valerie Traub and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2015-08-11 with total page 195 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In both feminist theory and Shakespearean criticism, questions of sexuality have consistently been conflated with questions of gender. First published in 1992, this book details the intersections and contradictions between sexuality and gender in the early modern period. Valerie Traub argues that desire and anxiety together constitute the erotic in Shakespearean drama – circulating throughout the dramatic texts, traversing ‘masculine’ and ‘feminine’ sites, eliciting and expressing heterosexual and homoerotic fantasies, embodiments, and fears. This is the first book to present a non-normalizing account of the unconscious and the institutional prerogatives that comprise the erotics of Shakespearean drama. Employing feminist, psychoanalytic, and new historical methods, and using each to interrogate the other, the book synthesises the psychic and the social, the individual and the institutional.

Metaphor and Shakespearean Drama

Author : M. Fahey
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 0230308805
Total Pages : 210 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (33 download)

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Book Synopsis Metaphor and Shakespearean Drama by : M. Fahey

Download or read book Metaphor and Shakespearean Drama written by M. Fahey and published by Springer. This book was released on 2011-08-31 with total page 210 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Metaphor and Shakespearean Drama explores the fruitful and potentially unruly nature of metaphorical utterances in Shakespearean drama, with analyses of Othello , Titus Andronicus , King Henry IV Part 1 , Macbeth , Hamlet , and The Tempest.

Tragic Conditions in Shakespeare

Author : Paul A. Kottman
Publisher : JHU Press
ISBN 13 : 0801895421
Total Pages : 210 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (18 download)

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Book Synopsis Tragic Conditions in Shakespeare by : Paul A. Kottman

Download or read book Tragic Conditions in Shakespeare written by Paul A. Kottman and published by JHU Press. This book was released on 2009-10-26 with total page 210 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Paul A. Kottman offers a new and compelling understanding of tragedy as seen in four of Shakespeare’s mature plays—As You Like It, Hamlet, King Lear, and The Tempest. The author pushes beyond traditional ways of thinking about tragedy, framing his readings with simple questions that have been missing from scholarship of the past generation: Are we still moved by Shakespeare, and why? Kottman throws into question the inheritability of human relationships by showing how the bonds upon which we depend for meaning and worth can be dissolved. According to Kottman, the lives of Shakespeare's protagonists are conditioned by social bonds—kinship ties, civic relations, economic dependencies, political allegiances—that unravel irreparably. This breakdown means they can neither inherit nor bequeath a livable or desirable form of sociality. Orlando and Rosalind inherit nothing “but growth itself” before becoming refugees in the Forest of Arden; Hamlet is disinherited not only by Claudius’s election but by the sheer vacuity of the activities that remain open to him; Lear’s disinheritance of Cordelia bequeaths a series of events that finally leave the social sphere itself forsaken of heirs and forbearers alike. Firmly rooted in the philosophical tradition of reading Shakespeare, this bold work is the first sustained interpretation of Shakespearean tragedy since Stanley Cavell’s work on skepticism and A. C. Bradley’s century-old Shakespearean Tragedy.

The Tragedy of Titus Andronicus

Author : William Shakespeare
Publisher : BoD - Books on Demand
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 127 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (419 download)

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Book Synopsis The Tragedy of Titus Andronicus by : William Shakespeare

Download or read book The Tragedy of Titus Andronicus written by William Shakespeare and published by BoD - Books on Demand. This book was released on 2024-04-01 with total page 127 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "The Tragedy of Titus Andronicus" by William Shakespeare is a gripping and intense drama that explores themes of revenge, betrayal, and the destructive consequences of violence. Set in ancient Rome, the play follows the tragic downfall of the noble general Titus Andronicus and his family as they become embroiled in a cycle of vengeance and bloodshed. At the heart of the story is the brutal conflict between Titus Andronicus and Tamora, Queen of the Goths, whose sons are executed by Titus as retribution for their crimes. In retaliation, Tamora and her lover, Aaron the Moor, orchestrate a series of heinous acts of revenge against Titus and his family, plunging them into a spiral of madness and despair. As the body count rises and the atrocities escalate, Titus is consumed by grief and rage, leading to a climactic showdown that culminates in a shocking and tragic conclusion. Along the way, Shakespeare explores themes of honor, justice, and the nature of humanity, offering a searing indictment of the cycle of violence and the capacity for cruelty that lies within us all.