Reliability and Validity Assessment

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Author :
Publisher : SAGE Publications, Incorporated
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 100 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability and Validity Assessment by : Edward G. Carmines

Download or read book Reliability and Validity Assessment written by Edward G. Carmines and published by SAGE Publications, Incorporated. This book was released on 1979 with total page 100 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This guide demonstrates how social scientists assess the reliability and validity of empirical measurements. This monograph is a good starting point for those who want to familiarize themselves with the current debates over "appropriate" measurement de

Assessment of Power System Reliability

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 0857296884
Total Pages : 302 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (572 download)

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Book Synopsis Assessment of Power System Reliability by : Marko Čepin

Download or read book Assessment of Power System Reliability written by Marko Čepin and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2011-07-29 with total page 302 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The importance of power system reliability is demonstrated when our electricity supply is disrupted, whether it decreases the comfort of our free time at home or causes the shutdown of our companies and results in huge economic deficits. The objective of Assessment of Power System Reliability is to contribute to the improvement of power system reliability. It consists of six parts divided into twenty chapters. The first part introduces the important background issues that affect power system reliability. The second part presents the reliability methods that are used for analyses of technical systems and processes. The third part discusses power flow analysis methods, because the dynamic aspect of a power system is an important part of related reliability assessments. The fourth part explores various aspects of the reliability assessment of power systems and their parts. The fifth part covers optimization methods. The sixth part looks at the application of reliability and optimization methods. Assessment of Power System Reliability has been written in straightforward language that continues into the mathematical representation of the methods. Power engineers and developers will appreciate the emphasis on practical usage, while researchers and advanced students will benefit from the simple examples that can facilitate their understanding of the theory behind power system reliability and that outline the procedure for application of the presented methods.

Reliability Assessment of Electric Power Systems Using Monte Carlo Methods

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1489913467
Total Pages : 361 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (899 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability Assessment of Electric Power Systems Using Monte Carlo Methods by : Billinton

Download or read book Reliability Assessment of Electric Power Systems Using Monte Carlo Methods written by Billinton and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-06-29 with total page 361 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The application of quantitative reliability evaluation in electric power sys tems has now evolved to the point at which most utilities use these techniques in one or more areas of their planning, design, and operation. Most of the techniques in use are based on analytical models and resulting analytical evaluation procedures. Improvements in and availability of high-speed digi tal computers have created the opportunity to analyze many of these prob lems using stochastic simulation methods and over the last decade there has been increased interest in and use made of Monte Carlo simulation in quantitative power system reliability assessment. Monte Carlo simulation is not a new concept and recorded applications have existed for at least 50 yr. However, localized high-speed computers with large-capacity storage have made Monte Carlo simulation an available and sometimes preferable option for many power system reliability applications. Monte Carlo simulation is also an integral part of a modern undergrad uate or graduate course on reliability evaluation of general engineering systems or specialized areas such as electric power systems. It is hoped that this textbook will help formalize the many existing applications of Monte Carlo simulation and assist in their integration in teaching programs. This book presents the basic concepts associated with Monte Carlo simulation.

Reliability Evaluation of Engineering Systems

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1489906851
Total Pages : 469 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (899 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability Evaluation of Engineering Systems by : Roy Billinton

Download or read book Reliability Evaluation of Engineering Systems written by Roy Billinton and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-06-29 with total page 469 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In response to new developments in the field, practical teaching experience, and readers' suggestions, the authors of the warmly received Reliablity Evaluation of Engineering Systems have updated and extended the work-providing extended coverage of fault trees and a more complete examination of probability distribution, among other things-without disturbing the original's concept, structure, or style.

Reliability Assessment of Safety and Production Systems

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9783030647100
Total Pages : 878 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (471 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability Assessment of Safety and Production Systems by : Jean-Pierre Signoret

Download or read book Reliability Assessment of Safety and Production Systems written by Jean-Pierre Signoret and published by Springer. This book was released on 2022-03-24 with total page 878 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides, as simply as possible, sound foundations for an in-depth understanding of reliability engineering with regard to qualitative analysis, modelling, and probabilistic calculations of safety and production systems. Drawing on the authors’ extensive experience within the field of reliability engineering, it addresses and discusses a variety of topics, including: • Background and overview of safety and dependability studies; • Explanation and critical analysis of definitions related to core concepts; • Risk identification through qualitative approaches (preliminary hazard analysis, HAZOP, FMECA, etc.); • Modelling of industrial systems through static (fault tree, reliability block diagram), sequential (cause-consequence diagrams, event trees, LOPA, bowtie), and dynamic (Markov graphs, Petri nets) approaches; • Probabilistic calculations through state-of-the-art analytical or Monte Carlo simulation techniques; • Analysis, modelling, and calculations of common cause failure and uncertainties; • Linkages and combinations between the various modelling and calculation approaches; • Reliability data collection and standardization. The book features illustrations, explanations, examples, and exercises to help readers gain a detailed understanding of the topic and implement it into their own work. Further, it analyses the production availability of production systems and the functional safety of safety systems (SIL calculations), showcasing specific applications of the general theory discussed. Given its scope, this book is a valuable resource for engineers, software designers, standard developers, professors, and students.

Handbook of Research on Determining the Reliability of Online Assessment and Distance Learning

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Publisher : IGI Global
ISBN 13 : 1799847705
Total Pages : 548 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (998 download)

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Book Synopsis Handbook of Research on Determining the Reliability of Online Assessment and Distance Learning by : Moura, Ana S.

Download or read book Handbook of Research on Determining the Reliability of Online Assessment and Distance Learning written by Moura, Ana S. and published by IGI Global. This book was released on 2020-11-13 with total page 548 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Though in the past online learning was considered of poorer professional quality than classroom learning, it has become a useful and, in some cases, vital tool for promoting the inclusivity of education. Some of its benefits include allowing greater accessibility to educational resources previously unattainable by those in rural areas, and in current times, it has proven to be a critical asset as universities shut down due to natural disasters and pandemics. Examining the current state of distance learning and determining online assessment tools and processes that can enhance the online learning experience are clearly crucial for the advancement of modern education. The Handbook of Research on Determining the Reliability of Online Assessment and Distance Learning is a collection of pioneering investigations on the methods and applications of digital technologies in the realm of education. It provides a clear and extensive analysis of issues regarding online learning while also offering frameworks to solve these addressed problems. Moreover, the book reviews and evaluates the present and intended future of distance learning, focusing on the societal and employer perspective versus the academic proposals. While highlighting topics including hybrid teaching, blended learning, and telelearning, this book is ideally designed for teachers, academicians, researchers, educational administrators, and students.

Reliability and Validity of International Large-Scale Assessment

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Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9783030530839
Total Pages : 277 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (38 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability and Validity of International Large-Scale Assessment by : Hans Wagemaker

Download or read book Reliability and Validity of International Large-Scale Assessment written by Hans Wagemaker and published by Springer. This book was released on 2021-09-04 with total page 277 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This open access book describes and reviews the development of the quality control mechanisms and methodologies associated with IEA’s extensive program of educational research. A group of renowned international researchers, directly involved in the design and execution of IEA’s international large-scale assessments (ILSAs), describe the operational and quality control procedures that are employed to address the challenges associated with providing high-quality, comparable data. Throughout the now considerable history of IEA’s international large-scale assessments, establishing the quality of the data has been paramount. Research in the complex multinational context in which IEA studies operate imposes significant burdens and challenges in terms of the methodologies and technologies that have been developed to achieve the stated study goals. The demands of the twin imperatives of validity and reliability must be satisfied in the context of multiple and diverse cultures, languages, orthographies, educational structures, educational histories, and traditions. Readers will learn about IEA’s approach to such challenges, and the methods used to ensure that the quality of the data provided to policymakers and researchers can be trusted. An often neglected area of investigation, namely the consequential validity of ILSAs, is also explored, examining issues related to reporting, dissemination, and impact, including discussion of the limits of interpretation. The final chapters address the question of the influence of ILSAs on policy and reform in education, including a case study from Singapore, a country known for its outstanding levels of achievement, but which nevertheless seeks the means of continual improvement, illustrating best practice use of ILSA data.

Reliability of Safety-Critical Systems

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Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1118553381
Total Pages : 356 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (185 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability of Safety-Critical Systems by : Marvin Rausand

Download or read book Reliability of Safety-Critical Systems written by Marvin Rausand and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2014-03-03 with total page 356 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Presents the theory and methodology for reliability assessments of safety-critical functions through examples from a wide range of applications Reliability of Safety-Critical Systems: Theory and Applications provides a comprehensive introduction to reliability assessments of safety-related systems based on electrical, electronic, and programmable electronic (E/E/PE) technology. With a focus on the design and development phases of safety-critical systems, the book presents theory and methods required to document compliance with IEC 61508 and the associated sector-specific standards. Combining theory and practical applications, Reliability of Safety-Critical Systems: Theory and Applications implements key safety-related strategies and methods to meet quantitative safety integrity requirements. In addition, the book details a variety of reliability analysis methods that are needed during all stages of a safety-critical system, beginning with specification and design and advancing to operations, maintenance, and modification control. The key categories of safety life-cycle phases are featured, including strategies for the allocation of reliability performance requirements; assessment methods in relation to design; and reliability quantification in relation to operation and maintenance. Issues and benefits that arise from complex modern technology developments are featured, as well as: Real-world examples from large industry facilities with major accident potential and products owned by the general public such as cars and tools Plentiful worked examples throughout that provide readers with a deeper understanding of the core concepts and aid in the analysis and solution of common issues when assessing all facets of safety-critical systems Approaches that work on a wide scope of applications and can be applied to the analysis of any safety-critical system A brief appendix of probability theory for reference With an emphasis on how safety-critical functions are introduced into systems and facilities to prevent or mitigate the impact of an accident, this book is an excellent guide for professionals, consultants, and operators of safety-critical systems who carry out practical, risk, and reliability assessments of safety-critical systems. Reliability of Safety-Critical Systems: Theory and Applications is also a useful textbook for courses in reliability assessment of safety-critical systems and reliability engineering at the graduate-level, as well as for consulting companies offering short courses in reliability assessment of safety-critical systems.

Reliability Assessment of Large Electric Power Systems

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1461316898
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (613 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability Assessment of Large Electric Power Systems by : Roy Billinton

Download or read book Reliability Assessment of Large Electric Power Systems written by Roy Billinton and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-12-06 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: We are very pleased to be asked to co-author this book for a variety of reasons, one of which was that it gave us further opportunity to work together. The scope proposed was very wide with the only significant proviso being that the book should be in a mongraph-style and not a teaching text. This require ment has given us the opportunity to compile a wide range of relevant material relating to present-day knowledge and application in power system reliability. As many readers will be aware, we have collaborated in many ways over a relatively long period and have co-authored two other books on reliability evaluation. Both of these previous books were structured as teaching texts. This present book is not a discourse on "how to do reliability evaluation" but a discussion on "why it should be done and what can be done and achieved" and as such does not replace or conflict with the previous books. The three books are complementary and each enhances the others. The material contained in this book is not specifically original since it is based on information which we have published in other forms either jointly or as co authors with various other people, particularly our many research students. We sincerely acknowledge the important contributions made by all these students and colleagues. There are too many to mention individually in this preface but their names appear frequently in the references at the end of each chapter.

Reliability and Risk Assessment

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Author :
Publisher : Longman Scientific and Technical
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 400 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability and Risk Assessment by : John D. Andrews

Download or read book Reliability and Risk Assessment written by John D. Andrews and published by Longman Scientific and Technical. This book was released on 1993 with total page 400 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Accidents at process plants such as Windscale, Piper Alpha and Chernobyl have created worldwide concern over the risks involved in operating hazardous plant. Thorough procedures for the assessment and reliability testing of safety systems are now in great demand. Reliability and Risk Assessment provides a full theoretical background to the techniques used in this field of engineering and discusses how these methods are applied in practice. The authors show how these methods can be used to improve not only the safety records, but also the efficiency, productivity and profitability, of processing plants. Reliability and Risk Assessment is intended primarily as a reference for professional engineers, but will also prove invaluable for postgraduate students involved in reliability and risk assessment research.

Solder Joint Reliability Assessment

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business
ISBN 13 : 3319000926
Total Pages : 179 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (19 download)

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Book Synopsis Solder Joint Reliability Assessment by : Mohd N. Tamin

Download or read book Solder Joint Reliability Assessment written by Mohd N. Tamin and published by Springer Science & Business. This book was released on 2014-04-26 with total page 179 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents a systematic approach in performing reliability assessment of solder joints using Finite Element (FE) simulation. Essential requirements for FE modelling of an electronic package or a single reflowed solder joint subjected to reliability test conditions are elaborated. These cover assumptions considered for a simplified physical model, FE model geometry development, constitutive models for solder joints and aspects of FE model validation. Fundamentals of the mechanics of solder material are adequately reviewed in relation to FE formulations. Concept of damage is introduced along with deliberation of cohesive zone model and continuum damage model for simulation of solder/IMC interface and bulk solder joint failure, respectively. Applications of the deliberated methodology to selected problems in assessing reliability of solder joints are demonstrated. These industry-defined research-based problems include solder reflow cooling, temperature cycling and mechanical fatigue of a BGA package, JEDEC board-level drop test and mechanisms of solder joint fatigue. Emphasis is placed on accurate quantitative assessment of solder joint reliability through basic understanding of the mechanics of materials as interpreted from results of FE simulations. The FE simulation methodology is readily applicable to numerous other problems in mechanics of materials and structures.

Hydrosystems Engineering Reliability Assessment and Risk Analysis

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Publisher : McGraw Hill Professional
ISBN 13 : 0071589007
Total Pages : 513 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (715 download)

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Book Synopsis Hydrosystems Engineering Reliability Assessment and Risk Analysis by : Yeou-Koung Tung

Download or read book Hydrosystems Engineering Reliability Assessment and Risk Analysis written by Yeou-Koung Tung and published by McGraw Hill Professional. This book was released on 2005-10-10 with total page 513 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the first book to integrate reliability analysis and risk assessment with the planning, design, and management of hydrosystems (dams, levees, storm sewers, etc.). Requiring only a basic knowledge of probability and statistics, readers will be able to determine how hydrosystem structures will perform under various circumstances.

Reliability and Validity in Neuropsychological Assessment

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1475732244
Total Pages : 463 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (757 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability and Validity in Neuropsychological Assessment by : Michael D. Franzen

Download or read book Reliability and Validity in Neuropsychological Assessment written by Michael D. Franzen and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-11-21 with total page 463 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: No other book reviews clinical neuropsychological assessment from an empirical psychometric perspective. In this completely revised and updated 2nd edition, the concepts and methods of psychometric neuropsychology are presented as a framework by which to evaluate current instruments. Newer methodologies and statistical techniques are discussed, such as meta analysis, effect size, confirming factor analysis and ecological validity. The explosion of research in this area since the publication of the first edition in 1989, has been incorporated, including a greatly expanded chapter on child assessment instruments. This volume is a must for the bookshelf of every clinical neuropsychologist as well as researchers and students. Anyone conducting forensic evaluations will especially find useful the information on reliability and validity when preparing for court appearances.

A Guide To Practical Human Reliability Assessment

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Author :
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1351469878
Total Pages : 520 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (514 download)

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Book Synopsis A Guide To Practical Human Reliability Assessment by : B. Kirwan

Download or read book A Guide To Practical Human Reliability Assessment written by B. Kirwan and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2017-12-14 with total page 520 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Human error is here to stay. This perhaps obvious statement has a profound implication for society when faced with the types of hazardous system accidents that have occurred over the past three decades. Such accidents have been strongly influenced by human error, yet many system designs in existence or being planned and built do not take human error into consideration.; "A Guide to Practical Human Reliability Assessment" is a practical and pragmatic guide to the techniques and approaches of human reliability assessment HRA. lt offers the reader explanatory and practical methods which have been applied and have worked in high technology and high risk assessments - particularly but not exclusively to potentially hazardous industries such as exist in process control, nuclear power, chemical and petrochemical industries. A Guide to Practical Human Reliability Assessment offers the practitioner a comprehensive tool-kit of different approaches along with guidance on selecting different methods for different applications. It covers the risk assessment and the HRA process, as well as methods of task analysis, error identification, quantification, representation of errors in the risk analysis, followed by error reduction analysis, quality assurance and documentation. There are also a number of detailed case studies from nuclear, chemical, offshore, and marine HRA'S, exemplfying the image of techniques and the impact of HRA in existing and design-stage systems.

Reliability Assessment Using Stochastic Finite Element Analysis

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Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 9780471369615
Total Pages : 356 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (696 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability Assessment Using Stochastic Finite Element Analysis by : Achintya Haldar

Download or read book Reliability Assessment Using Stochastic Finite Element Analysis written by Achintya Haldar and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2000-05-22 with total page 356 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first complete guide to using the Stochastic Finite Element Method for reliability assessment Unlike other analytical reliability estimation techniques, the Stochastic Finite Element Method (SFEM) can be used for both implicit and explicit performance functions, making it a particularly powerful and robust tool for today's engineer. This book, written by two pioneers in SFEM-based methodologies, shows how to use SFEM for the reliability analysis of a wide range of structures. It begins by reviewing essential risk concepts, currently available risk evaluation procedures, and the use of analytical and sampling methods in estimating risk. Next, it introduces SFEM evaluation procedures, with detailed coverage of displacement-based and stress-based deterministic finite element approaches. Linear, nonlinear, static, and dynamic problems are considered separately to demonstrate the robustness of the methods. The risk or reliability estimation procedure for each case is presented in different chapters, with theory complemented by a useful series of examples. Integrating advanced concepts in risk-based design, finite elements, and mechanics, Reliability Assessment Using Stochastic Finite Element Analysis is vital reading for engineering professionals and students in all areas of the field.

Reliability Assessments

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Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1315353849
Total Pages : 749 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (153 download)

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Book Synopsis Reliability Assessments by : Franklin Richard Nash, Ph.D.

Download or read book Reliability Assessments written by Franklin Richard Nash, Ph.D. and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2017-07-12 with total page 749 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides engineers and scientists with a single source introduction to the concepts, models, and case studies for making credible reliability assessments. It satisfies the need for thorough discussions of several fundamental subjects. Section I contains a comprehensive overview of assessing and assuring reliability that is followed by discussions of: • Concept of randomness and its relationship to chaos • Uses and limitations of the binomial and Poisson distributions • Relationship of the chi-square method and Poisson curves • Derivations and applications of the exponential, Weibull, and lognormal models • Examination of the human mortality bathtub curve as a template for components Section II introduces the case study modeling of failure data and is followed by analyses of: • 5 sets of ideal Weibull, lognormal, and normal failure data • 83 sets of actual (real) failure data The intent of the modeling was to find the best descriptions of the failures using statistical life models, principally the Weibull, lognormal, and normal models, for characterizing the failure probability distributions of the times-, cycles-, and miles-to-failure during laboratory or field testing. The statistical model providing the preferred characterization was determined empirically by choosing the two-parameter model that gave the best straight-line fit in the failure probability plots using a combination of visual inspection and three statistical goodness-of-fit (GoF) tests. This book offers practical insight in dealing with single item reliability and illustrates the use of reliability methods to solve industry problems.

Validity and Inter-Rater Reliability Testing of Quality Assessment Instruments

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Author :
Publisher : CreateSpace
ISBN 13 : 9781484077146
Total Pages : 108 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (771 download)

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Book Synopsis Validity and Inter-Rater Reliability Testing of Quality Assessment Instruments by : U. S. Department of Health and Human Services

Download or read book Validity and Inter-Rater Reliability Testing of Quality Assessment Instruments written by U. S. Department of Health and Human Services and published by CreateSpace. This book was released on 2013-04-09 with total page 108 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The internal validity of a study reflects the extent to which the design and conduct of the study have prevented bias(es). One of the key steps in a systematic review is assessment of a study's internal validity, or potential for bias. This assessment serves to: (1) identify the strengths and limitations of the included studies; (2) investigate, and potentially explain heterogeneity in findings across different studies included in a systematic review; and (3) grade the strength of evidence for a given question. The risk of bias assessment directly informs one of four key domains considered when assessing the strength of evidence. With the increase in the number of published systematic reviews and development of systematic review methodology over the past 15 years, close attention has been paid to the methods for assessing internal validity. Until recently this has been referred to as “quality assessment” or “assessment of methodological quality.” In this context “quality” refers to “the confidence that the trial design, conduct, and analysis has minimized or avoided biases in its treatment comparisons.” To facilitate the assessment of methodological quality, a plethora of tools has emerged. Some of these tools were developed for specific study designs (e.g., randomized controlled trials (RCTs), cohort studies, case-control studies), while others were intended to be applied to a range of designs. The tools often incorporate characteristics that may be associated with bias; however, many tools also contain elements related to reporting (e.g., was the study population described) and design (e.g., was a sample size calculation performed) that are not related to bias. The Cochrane Collaboration recently developed a tool to assess the potential risk of bias in RCTs. The Risk of Bias (ROB) tool was developed to address some of the shortcomings of existing quality assessment instruments, including over-reliance on reporting rather than methods. Several systematic reviews have catalogued and critiqued the numerous tools available to assess methodological quality, or risk of bias of primary studies. In summary, few existing tools have undergone extensive inter-rater reliability or validity testing. Moreover, the focus of much of the tool development or testing that has been done has been on criterion or face validity. Therefore it is unknown whether, or to what extent, the summary assessments based on these tools differentiate between studies with biased and unbiased results (i.e., studies that may over- or underestimate treatment effects). There is a clear need for inter-rater reliability testing of different tools in order to enhance consistency in their application and interpretation across different systematic reviews. Further, validity testing is essential to ensure that the tools being used can identify studies with biased results. Finally, there is a need to determine inter-rater reliability and validity in order to support the uptake and use of individual tools that are recommended by the systematic review community, and specifically the ROB tool within the Evidence-based Practice Center (EPC) Program. In this project we focused on two tools that are commonly used in systematic reviews. The Cochrane ROB tool was designed for RCTs and is the instrument recommended by The Cochrane Collaboration for use in systematic reviews of RCTs. The Newcastle-Ottawa Scale is commonly used for nonrandomized studies, specifically cohort and case-control studies.