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Producing Sulfate Resistant Concrete And Achieving Equal Performance With Low Co2 Portland Limestone Cement
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Book Synopsis Producing Sulfate-resistant Concrete and Achieving Equal Performance with Low-CO2 Portland Limestone Cement by : Ashlee Hossack
Download or read book Producing Sulfate-resistant Concrete and Achieving Equal Performance with Low-CO2 Portland Limestone Cement written by Ashlee Hossack and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 414 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Low Temperature Sulfate Resistance of Concrete Produced with Portland-limestone Cements and Supplementary Cementitious Materials by : Reza Mohammadi Ahani
Download or read book Low Temperature Sulfate Resistance of Concrete Produced with Portland-limestone Cements and Supplementary Cementitious Materials written by Reza Mohammadi Ahani and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Portland-limestone cement with up to 15% interground limestone was included in the Canadian Standard A3000 for Hydraulic Cements in 2008. However, due to the lack of data on sulfate resistance of concrete especially the potential for thaumasite sulfate attack at low temperatures, the use of portland-limestone cement in concretes subjected to moderate or severe sulfate exposures, even when blended with supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) was not allowed. In this experimental research, the sulfate resistance of fifty three concrete mixtures produced with several combinations of portland and/or portland-limestone cements and SCMs at three different water-to-cementitious materials ratios of 0.40, 0.50, and 0.70 exposed to both sodium and magnesium sulfate solutions was evaluated in both laboratory and field exposures at low temperatures by measuring changes in length, mass, and resonant frequency of concrete prisms as well as making visual inspections. Also, the causes, mechanisms, and depth of deterioration in damaged concrete mixtures having insufficient levels of SCMs was investigated by mineralogical analysis using X-ray diffraction and microstructural analyses using micro X-ray fluorescence spectrometry and scanning electron microscopy. It was found that SCMs at sufficient replacement levels significantly improve the resistance of concrete to sulfate attack and in such mixtures there was no impact of limestone additions. The sulfate resistance of PC+SCMs and PLC+SCMs concrete mixtures is equal to or better than that of currently allowed highly and moderately sulfate-resistant portland and blended cements. Exposure to magnesium sulfate solution is more aggressive than sodium sulfate solution. The sulfate resistance of concrete prisms in the selected field exposures is better than that of prisms in the selected laboratory exposures due to more reasonable concentrations of sulfate solutions, larger prism size, and possibly including the variable temperature used in the field exposure. Since there is no standard test method for evaluating the sulfate resistance of concrete due to the potential threat from thaumasite sulfate attack at low temperature and previous research focused on mortar tests, the results of this research can be used to develop a standard test method for evaluating the sulfate resistance of concrete.
Book Synopsis The Use of Limestone in Portland Cement by : Rachel Jean Detwiler
Download or read book The Use of Limestone in Portland Cement written by Rachel Jean Detwiler and published by . This book was released on 1996 with total page 52 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Sulfate Resistance and Properties of Portland- Limestone Cements by : Amir Mohammad Ramezanianpour
Download or read book Sulfate Resistance and Properties of Portland- Limestone Cements written by Amir Mohammad Ramezanianpour and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Improving Performance of Portland-limestone Cements in Sulfate Exposures Using Supplementary Cementing Materials by : Seyed Sajjad Mirvalad
Download or read book Improving Performance of Portland-limestone Cements in Sulfate Exposures Using Supplementary Cementing Materials written by Seyed Sajjad Mirvalad and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 231 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Portland limestone cement (PLC) is a recent addition to North America, promoted for its environmental benefits while maintaining suitable properties in both the fresh and hardened state. However, due to concerns regarding the degradation of concrete in sulfate exposure, especially in cold environments, its use is currently limited. In Canada, this type of cement was first introduced in 2008, but its practice in sulfate exposure was prohibited according to CSA A23.1. In 2010, CSA A3001 introduced physical requirements and suggested minimum amounts of supplementary cementing materials (SCMs) to be used for a blended PLC to be considered in sulfate exposure. Alongside, CSA A3004-C8, the standard test method for evaluating performance of cement in sulfate exposure, was revised. In this study, different SCMs available in Canada were used in binary and ternary PLC blends in order to achieve sulfate resistance. For all PLC blends, ettringite sulfate attack (ESA) and thaumasite sulfate attack (TSA) were studied. It was found that the PLC blends containing the standard recommended amounts of SCMs were not resistant against TSA. However, when the SCM amount was increased in the blend, the desired resistance was achieved. Ternary blends of slag and fly ash were found to be the most resistant. In addition, mass changes in ESA and TSA as well as compressive strength and ultrasonic velocity in mortar samples were studied. Moreover, a combined differential scanning calorimetry and X-ray diffraction study were performed on samples in TSA and indicated formation of thaumasite in the deteriorated samples as well as on the surface of the intact ones. Interestingly, the mortar samples of the ternary PLC blend containing 40% slag and 20% fly ash were the only ones that did not show formation of thaumasite after a two-year TSA study. Overall, SCMs were found effective in improving the resistance of PLC blends in sulfate exposure. Additionally, it was found that, in general, the increase in the SCM content in a PLC blend promoted its resistance.
Book Synopsis Performance Studies on Portland-limestone Cement in Sulfate Environments by : Md Manjur A. Elahi
Download or read book Performance Studies on Portland-limestone Cement in Sulfate Environments written by Md Manjur A. Elahi and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 236 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Sulfate attack can occur in concrete due to external sulfate ions reacting with hydrated cement paste. The sulfate attack resistance of portland-limestone cements (PLCs) has been questioned due to their high limestone content, which has the potential to initiate a rare type of sulfate attack that forms thaumasite. This research evaluates the performance of portland-limestone cements in sulfate prone environments by investigating changes in the physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of specimens. Mortar and paste specimens prepared by replacing Type I/II and Type V cement with 4.4, 10, 14.6 and 20 percent of calcitic and dolomitic limestone powders and fly ash are examined for their sulfate resistance. An accelerated cube test for measuring strength loss due to sulfate attack was developed using 33,800 ppm sodium and magnesium sulfate solutions at 5°C and 23°C. Results from this testing are compared to ASTM C1012 expansion measurements. The physical and chemical transformation in paste specimens are analyzed using visual observation, mass loss measurements, and X-ray diffraction.
Book Synopsis Potential of Portland-Limestone Cement to Improve Performance of Concrete Made With High Slag Cement and Fly Ash Replacement Rates by : J. Shannon
Download or read book Potential of Portland-Limestone Cement to Improve Performance of Concrete Made With High Slag Cement and Fly Ash Replacement Rates written by J. Shannon and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page 17 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Aggressive use of supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in concrete is becoming more appealing due to potential for cost effectiveness, reduced environmental impact, enhanced durability, and increased sustainability. Constructability, though, is often less attractive as time of set and early strength development can be delayed. This paper investigated the merits of incorporating portland-limestone cement (PLC) to improve concrete sustainability and performance when rounded gravel aggregates (most sustainable for some markets) were used in conjunction with dual SCMs proportioned for 50 % to 70 % total cement replacement. The family of concrete mixtures evaluated have not been widely studied with PLC (in the US or elsewhere). Mixtures containing PLC designed for improved synergies in the US construction market were compared to similar variations containing ordinary portland cement (OPC). PLC was shown to be able to produce concrete mixtures of greater compressive strength and lower set times compared to OPC in some, but not all, conditions. Individual mixture performance varied based on SCM use, PLC properties, and aggregate properties.
Book Synopsis Performance of Portland Limestone Cements by : Timothy Barrett
Download or read book Performance of Portland Limestone Cements written by Timothy Barrett and published by . This book was released on 2013-12-31 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In 2009, ASTM and AASHTO permitted the use of up to 5% interground limestone in ordinary portland cement (OPC) as a part of ASTM C150/AASHTO M85. When this project was initiated a new proposal was being discussed that would enable up to 15% interground limestone to be considered in ASTM C595/AASHTO M234 cement. This project was initiated to provide rapid feedback to INDOT for use in discussions regarding these specifications (this has become ASTM C595/AASHTO M240). PLC is designed to enable more sustainable construction which may significantly reduce the CO2 that is embodied in the built infrastructure while extending the life of cement quarries. The physical and chemical properties of the cementitious materials used in this study were examined. PLC is typically a finer cement (10 to 30% Blaine fineness) with a reduction in the coarse clinker particles (>20µm) and an increase in fine particles which are primarily limestone. Isothermal calorimetry and chemical shrinkage results imply that these PLC materials have a similar or slight greater reaction and would be able to be used interchangeably with OPC in practice as it relates to the rate of reaction. The PLC mortars exhibited relatively similar activation energies compared to the corresponding OPCs allowing the maturity method to be used by INDOT for both the PLC and OPC systems. The mechanical properties of OPC and PLC were generally similar with the PLC typically having slightly higher early age strengths but similar 28 day strengths. No significant change in drying shrinkage or restrained shrinkage cracking was observed for the PLC when compared with OPC (Barrett et al. 2013). The PLC has similar volumes of permeable voids as the OPC. The chloride diffusion coefficients in the PLC systems may range from 0 to 30% higher than the OPCs. The PLC showed synergistic benefits when paired with fly ash. Based on the available literature and available testing results INDOT could consider PLC, as specified in accordance with ASTM C-595/AASHTO M 240, to be a suitable option for use in INDOT concrete applications.
Book Synopsis Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete by : Ali Nazari
Download or read book Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete written by Ali Nazari and published by Butterworth-Heinemann. This book was released on 2016-09-30 with total page 443 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Handbook of Low Carbon Concrete brings together the latest breakthroughs in the design, production, and application of low carbon concrete. In this handbook, the editors and contributors have paid extra attention to the emissions generated by coarse aggregates, emissions due to fine aggregates, and emissions due to cement, fly ash, GGBFS, and admixtures. In addition, the book provides expert coverage on emissions due to concrete batching, transport and placement, and emissions generated by typical commercially produced concretes. Includes the tools and methods for reducing the emissions of greenhouse gases Explores technologies, such as carbon capture, storage, and substitute cements Provides essential data that helps determine the unique factors involved in designing large, new green cement plants
Book Synopsis Performance of Portland Limestone Cement Concrete Incorporating Chemical and Mineral Admixtures by : Sara Mohsen Hussain Ali
Download or read book Performance of Portland Limestone Cement Concrete Incorporating Chemical and Mineral Admixtures written by Sara Mohsen Hussain Ali and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 216 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Low Embodied CO2 Binders Using Belitic Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cement by : Elisabeth Ateba Essolebe
Download or read book Low Embodied CO2 Binders Using Belitic Calcium Sulfoaluminate Cement written by Elisabeth Ateba Essolebe and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Using alternative cements or binders is an effective strategy to reduce the overall embodied CO2 of concrete. Portland limestone cement (PLC) and limestone calcined clay cement (LC3) are commercially available Portland-based cements with less embodied CO2 than traditional Portland cement. These binders contain lower amounts of Portland cement and include supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) that can provide additional cementitious properties. Another class of cements known as calcium sulfoaluminate or CSA cements, and more specifically, belite CSA or BCSA cements, are becoming increasingly important because of their high performance and low embodied CO2. One drawback of PLC and LC3 cements is that they lack early-age strengths, i.e., between 1 and 24 hours; however, BCSA cement, due to its unique chemistry and rapid setting behavior, can provide sufficient high early-age strengths necessary for specific applications. The ability of concrete mixes that provide this advantage and offer lower CO2 emissions can also have economic benefits. In this study, low embodied CO2 binders are developed using BCSA and PLC as well as calcined clay to maintain or improve their essential performance characteristics. Cement blends consisting of BCSA, PLC, and calcined clay are prepared, and various properties such as flow, setting time, shrinkage, and compressive strength are measured. The hydration of different phases in these binders and their blends are also evaluated using isothermal calorimetry, TGA/DTG, XRD, and SEM. The results show that replacing only 30% of PLC or LC3 (i.e., a mix proportioned with PLC and calcined clay) with BCSA can significantly improve early-age performance without affecting later-age strength and achieve a low GWP and carbon intensity.
Book Synopsis Developing of One-Part Alkali-Activated Self-Consolidating Concrete and Investigating Its Sulfate Attack Resistance by : Dima Kanaan
Download or read book Developing of One-Part Alkali-Activated Self-Consolidating Concrete and Investigating Its Sulfate Attack Resistance written by Dima Kanaan and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Cement production is one of the major contributors to higher carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, leading to a higher carbon footprint. Hence, reducing cement demand will preserve natural resources and reduce CO2 emissions associated with cement production. Moreover, the reliance on cement manifested the concern associated with the disintegration problems of the long-standing structures, indicating the handicaps of Portland cement as a binder. Nowadays, the development of cement-less sustainable concrete is gaining significant attention due to its ecological value and environmental benefits. On the other hand, Alkali-Activated Materials (AAMs) are considered part of the future toolkit towards achieving sustainable binding systems. AAMs are likely achieved by the utilization of low-carbon footprint materials (entitled "precursors") activated in alkaline environments (induced by "activators"). In recent research, there has been an increasing emphasis on the utilization of these advanced cementing systems in the production of concrete for particular purposes such as SCC. Therefore, the main goal of Alkali-Activated Self-Consolidating Concrete (AASCC) is to produce zero-cement SCC without sacrificing its quality and performance. One of the main challenges facing AASCC application on the industrial scale is the development of effective mineral and chemical admixtures to improve the fresh, mechanical, but most importantly, durability performances. The durability of AASCC is a subject of controversy, especially when exposed to sulfate attacks. Furthermore, the adequacy of the standard sulfate immersion tests raises more concerns about the reported behavior. As is obvious from the research conducted by several investigators aiming for evaluating the dual aspects of AAMs potential and field-like quality. Since the resistance of AASCCs to external sulfate attack was not widely investigated as regular alkali-activated concretes (AACs). The current research work has introduced an integrated testing strategy that includes the exposure of AASCC to multiple field-like damaging factors, i.e., various cations, controlled pH, partial immersion, and wetting-drying cycles. This has helped create a fundamental knowledge of the durability of a wide range of AASCC mixtures to different external sulfate attack scenarios and capture the failure mechanisms of a wide scope of AASCC mixture designs. Keywords: Sustainability, Alkali-Activated SCC, Sulfate Attack, Integrated Testing
Book Synopsis Development and Characterization of Sustainable Self-Consolidating Concrete Containing High Volume of Limestone Powder and Natural Or Calcined Pozzolanic Materials by : Kemal Celik
Download or read book Development and Characterization of Sustainable Self-Consolidating Concrete Containing High Volume of Limestone Powder and Natural Or Calcined Pozzolanic Materials written by Kemal Celik and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 138 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Carbon dioxide emission from ordinary Portland cement manufacturing is one of the major sustainability issues facing the concrete industry. In fact, the annual worldwide CO2 emission from cement manufacturing is nearly 7% of the global emissions. Roughly 60% of these emissions come from the calcination of limestone, the main raw material for making Portland-cement clinker. The remaining CO2 emission is as a result of fuel combustion required to generate the heat necessary for the reactions forming clinker. Although considerable gains in energy efficiency have been achieved during the production of cement for the last two decades, calcination of limestone is the major concern as a source of CO2 emissions. Utilization of high-volume of by-products or natural pozzolanic material, such as basaltic ash pozzolan or fly ash as a replacement of Portland cement clinker, is a possible approach to reduce the clinker factor of Portland cement. In addition, self-consolidating concrete mixtures are being increasingly used for the construction of highly reinforced complex concrete elements and for massive concrete structures such as thick foundation due to its technical advantages such as shortened placement time, labor savings, improved compaction, and better encapsulation of rebar. Self-consolidating concrete requires utilization of high dosage of a plasticizing agent or viscosity-modifying chemical admixtures. The purpose of this study is to develop highly flowable self-consolidating concrete mixtures made of high proportions of cement replacement materials such as basaltic ash pozzolan, fly ash and pulverized limestone instead of high dosage of a plasticizer or viscosity-modifying admixtures, and characterize the effects of Portland cement replacement on the strength and durability. The two replacement materials used are high-volume finely-ground basaltic ash, a Saudi Arabian aluminum-silica rich basaltic glass and high-volume Class-F fly ash, from Jim Bridger Power Plant, Wyoming US. As an extension of the study, limestone powder was also used to replace Portland cement, alongside finely-ground basaltic ash and Class-F fly ash, forming ternary blends. Along with compressive strength tests, non-steady state chloride migration, water absorption and gas permeability tests were performed, as durability indicators, on self-consolidating concrete (SCC) specimens. The results were compared to two reference concretes; 100% ordinary Portland cement and 85% ordinary Portland cement - 15% limestone powder by weight. The high-volume of basaltic pozzolan and fly ash concrete mixtures showed strength and durability results comparable to those of the reference concretes at later ages; identifying that both can effectively be used to produce low-cost and environment-friendly self-consolidating concrete without utilizing viscosity-modifying admixture. Even though the slump flow diameter of SCC specimens was held in the similar range by utilizing varied amount of water reducer admixture, they were not identical. To enable a precise comparison among the specimens, the mortar specimens were produced that had same cement-replacement ratios with the ones in SCC specimens utilizing basaltic ash pozzolan (NP), Class-F fly ash (FA) and limestone powder without using water reducer admixture. Overall the binary and ternary FA samples had higher strength than NP mortar samples up to 1 year. This can be attributed to the higher pozzolanic reactivity of FA compared to NP which is supported by X-ray diffraction, isothermal calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis. The normal consistency and setting time of the mixtures were determined. It showed that cement replacement with limestone powder in the ternary blended cements containing either basaltic ash pozzolan or Class-F fly ash along with ordinary Portland cement lowered the initial and final time of setting relative to the binary blended cements containing similar ratio of cement replacement. Also, the water demand of mixtures incorporate with basaltic ash pozzolan was greater than the one with Class-F fly ash. The influence of the basaltic ash pozzolan, Class-F fly ash and limestone powder in the binary and ternary Portland cement blends is discussed, while following the physicochemical changes such as crystalline transition, hydration kinetics, and mechanical property that are a direct result of the addition of supplementary cementitious material or filler. Selected cement pastes were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), petrographic microscopy and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive spectroscopy, isothermal calorimetry and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). Integrating these techniques helps to understand the fresh and hardened properties of concretes and brings new insight into the effect of basaltic ash pozzolan, Class-F fly ash and limestone powder on the hydration of Portland cement. Isothermal calorimetry analysis presents that the addition of limestone powder, for instance, increased the rate of hydration reaction relative to the control specimen. This suggests that as a result of the further participation of aluminate phases in hydration reaction, the hydration products were improved. This outcome was confirmed with the analysis of XRD results by the finding carboaluminates in the limestone powder containing blended cements. It is important to note that the enhancement of hydration reaction was not adequate to compensate for the dilution effect due to addition of limestone powder. While the replacement of ordinary Portland cement with Class-F fly ash retarded the rate of hydration reaction relative to the one with basaltic ash pozzolan at first, the reactivity of Class-F fly ash improved after 2 days of hydration and surpassed the cumulative heat of hydration of basaltic ash pozzolan. This result is supported by TGA analysis demonstrating that the mixtures containing Class-F fly ash had more hydrate water with respect to the one of with basaltic ash pozzolan. XRD analysis showed that the addition of limestone powder in the ternary cement containing either basaltic ash pozzolan or fly ash led to stabilize the transformation of ettringite to monosulfate and introduce the carboaluminates in the hydration products. TGA analysis indicated that the degree of pozzolanic reaction of fly ash was higher than the one with basaltic ash in the binary and ternary blended mixtures. For a comprehensive analysis and quantification of emissions and global warming potential (GWP) from concrete production, life-cycle assessment was used on the concrete mixture containing Class-F fly ash. It is found that high volume, up to 55% by weight replacement of ordinary Portland cement with Class-F fly ash, or Class-F fly ash and limestone powder produces highly workable concrete that has high 28-day and 365-day strength, and extremely high to very high resistance to chloride penetration along with low GWP for concrete production.
Book Synopsis Cement Production Technology by : Anjan Kumar Chatterjee
Download or read book Cement Production Technology written by Anjan Kumar Chatterjee and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2018-04-27 with total page 484 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is an outcome of the author’s active professional involvement in research, manufacture and consultancy in the field of cement chemistry and process engineering. This multidisciplinary title on cement production technology covers the entire process spectrum of cement production, starting from extraction and winning of natural raw materials to the finished products including the environmental impacts and research trends. The book has an overtone of practice supported by the back-up principles.
Book Synopsis Cementitious Materials by : Herbert Pöllmann
Download or read book Cementitious Materials written by Herbert Pöllmann and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2017-12-18 with total page 518 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Aside from water the materials which are used by mankind in highest quantities arecementitious materials and concrete. This book shows how the quality of the technical product depends on mineral phases and their reactions during the hydration and strengthening process. Additives and admixtures infl uence the course of hydration and the properties. Options of reducing the CO2-production in cementitious materials are presented and numerous examples of unhydrous and hydrous phases and their formation conditions are discussed. This editorial work consists of four parts including cement composition and hydration, Special cement and binder mineral phases, Cementitious and binder materials, and Measurement and properties. Every part contains different contributions and covers a broad range within the area. Contents Part I: Cement composition and hydration Diffraction and crystallography applied to anhydrous cements Diffraction and crystallography applied to hydrating cements Synthesis of highly reactive pure cement phases Thermodynamic modelling of cement hydration: Portland cements – blended cements – calcium sulfoaluminate cements Part II: Special cement and binder mineral phases Role of hydrotalcite-type layered double hydroxides in delayed pozzolanic reactions and their bearing on mortar dating Setting control of CAC by substituted acetic acids and crystal structures of their calcium salts Crystallography and crystal chemistry of AFm phases related to cement chemistry Part III: Cementitious and binder materials Chemistry, design and application of hybrid alkali activated binders Binding materials based on calcium sulphates Magnesia building material (Sorel cement) – from basics to application New CO2-reduced cementitious systems Composition and properties of ternary binders Part IV: Measurement and properties Characterization of microstructural properties of Portland cements by analytical scanning electron microscopy Correlating XRD data with technological properties No cement production without refractories
Download or read book Cement written by Friedrich W. Locher and published by Verlag Bau+Technik. This book was released on 2013-03-20 with total page 671 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The successful launch of the German standard work on cement by Prof. Locher in 2000 is now being followed by the publication of the widely requested English language version "Cement" which takes special country-specific features and standards into account. The book is aimed at chemists, physicists, engineers and technologists in the cement industry, in machine construction, the construction industry, materials testing and environmental protection. This clear and practical book will provide them with the understanding of the chemistry of cement needed for their daily work. It will also make an ideal textbook for the study of building materials science at colleges and universities.
Book Synopsis Innovations and Developments in Concrete Materials and Construction by : Ravindra K. Dhir
Download or read book Innovations and Developments in Concrete Materials and Construction written by Ravindra K. Dhir and published by Thomas Telford. This book was released on 2002 with total page 1036 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: There is no substitute for concrete that can be used on the same engineering scale. Its sustainability, exploitation and further development are necessary for a healthy economy and environment worldwide. Concrete must keep evolving to satisfy the increasing demands of all its users.
