Pietism And Community In Europe And North America 1650 1850

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Pietism and Community in Europe and North America, 1650-1850

Author :
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004193553
Total Pages : 380 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (41 download)

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Book Synopsis Pietism and Community in Europe and North America, 1650-1850 by :

Download or read book Pietism and Community in Europe and North America, 1650-1850 written by and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2010-10-25 with total page 380 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Pietist movements challenged traditional forms of religious community, group formation, and ecclesiology. Where many older accounts have emphasized the individual and subjective nature of Pietists to the exclusion of community, one of the hallmarks of Pietism has been the creation of groups and experimentation with new forms of religious association and sociality. The essays presented here reflect the diverse ways in which Pietists struggled with the tension between the separation from the “world” and the formation of new communities from the seventeenth to the nineteenth century in Europe and North America. Presenting a range of methodological perspectives, the authors explore the processes of community formation, the function of communicative networks, and the diversity of Pietist communities within the context of early modern religious and cultural history.

Pietism in Germany and North America 1680–1820

Author : Hartmut Lehmann
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1351911201
Total Pages : 289 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (519 download)

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Book Synopsis Pietism in Germany and North America 1680–1820 by : Hartmut Lehmann

Download or read book Pietism in Germany and North America 1680–1820 written by Hartmut Lehmann and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-12-05 with total page 289 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This collection explores different approaches to contextualizing and conceptualizing the history of Pietism, particularly Pietistic groups who migrated from central Europe to the British colonies in North America during the long eighteenth century. Emerging in German speaking lands during the seventeenth century, Pietism was closely related to Puritanism, sharing similar evangelical and heterogeneous characteristics. Dissatisfied with the established Lutheran and Reformed Churches, Pietists sought to revivify Christianity through godly living, biblical devotion, millennialism and the establishment of new forms of religious association. As Pietism represents a diverse set of impulses rather than a centrally organized movement, there were inevitably fundamental differences amongst Pietist groups, and these differences - and conflicts - were carried with those that emigrated to the New World. The importance of Pietism in shaping Protestant society and culture in Europe and North America has long been recognized, but as a topic of scholarly inquiry, it has until now received little interdisciplinary attention. Offering essays by leading scholars from a range of fields, this volume provides an interdisciplinary overview of the subject. Beginning with discussions about the definition of Pietism, the collection next looks at the social, political and cultural dimensions of Pietism in German-speaking Europe. This is then followed by a section investigating the attempts by German Pietists to establish new, religiously-based communities in North America. The collection concludes with discussions on new directions in Pietist research. Together these essays help situate Pietism in the broader Atlantic context, making an important contribution to understanding religious life in Europe and colonial North America during the eighteenth century.

German Pietism and the Problem of Conversion

Author : Jonathan Strom
Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 0271080485
Total Pages : 237 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (71 download)

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Book Synopsis German Pietism and the Problem of Conversion by : Jonathan Strom

Download or read book German Pietism and the Problem of Conversion written by Jonathan Strom and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2017-12-15 with total page 237 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: August Hermann Francke described his conversion to Pietism in gripping terms that included intense spiritual struggle, weeping, falling to his knees, and a decisive moment in which his doubt suddenly disappeared and he was “overwhelmed as with a stream of joy.” His account came to exemplify Pietist conversion in the historical imagination around Pietism and religious awakening. Jonathan Strom’s new interpretation challenges the paradigmatic nature of Francke’s narrative and seeks to uncover the more varied, complex, and problematic character that conversion experiences posed for Pietists in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Grounded in archival research, German Pietism and the Problem of Conversion traces the way that accounts of conversion developed and were disseminated among Pietists. Strom examines members’ relationship to the pious stories of the “last hours,” the growth of conversion narratives in popular Pietist periodicals, controversies over the Busskampf model of conversion, the Dargun revival movement, and the popular, if gruesome, genre of execution conversion narratives. Interrogating a wide variety of sources and examining nuance in the language used to define conversion throughout history, Strom explains how these experiences were received and why many Pietists had an uneasy relationship to conversions and the practice of narrating them. A learned, insightful work by one of the world’s leading scholars of Pietism, this volume sheds new light on Pietist conversion and the development of piety and modern evangelical narratives of religious experience.

Pietism in Germany and North America 1680-1820

Author : HARTMUT. MELTON LEHMANN (JAMES VAN HORN.)
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 9781138382701
Total Pages : 300 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (827 download)

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Book Synopsis Pietism in Germany and North America 1680-1820 by : HARTMUT. MELTON LEHMANN (JAMES VAN HORN.)

Download or read book Pietism in Germany and North America 1680-1820 written by HARTMUT. MELTON LEHMANN (JAMES VAN HORN.) and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-05-31 with total page 300 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This collection explores different approaches to contextualizing and conceptualizing the history of Pietism, particularly Pietistic groups who migrated from central Europe to the British colonies in North America during the long eighteenth century. Emerging in German speaking lands during the seventeenth century, Pietism was closely related to Puritanism, sharing similar evangelical and heterogeneous characteristics. Dissatisfied with the established Lutheran and Reformed Churches, Pietists sought to revivify Christianity through godly living, biblical devotion, millennialism and the establishment of new forms of religious association. As Pietism represents a diverse set of impulses rather than a centrally organized movement, there were inevitably fundamental differences amongst Pietist groups, and these differences - and conflicts - were carried with those that emigrated to the New World. The importance of Pietism in shaping Protestant society and culture in Europe and North America has long been recognized, but as a topic of scholarly inquiry, it has until now received little interdisciplinary attention. Offering essays by leading scholars from a range of fields, this volume provides an interdisciplinary overview of the subject. Beginning with discussions about the definition of Pietism, the collection next looks at the social, political and cultural dimensions of Pietism in German-speaking Europe. This is then followed by a section investigating the attempts by German Pietists to establish new, religiously-based communities in North America. The collection concludes with discussions on new directions in Pietist research. Together these essays help situate Pietism in the broader Atlantic context, making an important contribution to understanding religious life in Europe and colonial North America during the eighteenth century.

Pietism, Revivalism and Modernity, 1650-1850

Author : Fred van Lieburg
Publisher : Cambridge Scholars Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1527563235
Total Pages : 300 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (275 download)

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Book Synopsis Pietism, Revivalism and Modernity, 1650-1850 by : Fred van Lieburg

Download or read book Pietism, Revivalism and Modernity, 1650-1850 written by Fred van Lieburg and published by Cambridge Scholars Publishing. This book was released on 2020-11-30 with total page 300 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Pietism can be understood either as a specific German theological tradition emanating from late seventeenth-century reformers as Spener and Francke or as a wider range of practical piety characterising early modern movements as Protestant Puritanism and Methodism as well as Catholic Jansenism. Trying an inclusive definition, an international network programme was set up, resulting in a first conference in the Netherlands in 2004, which addressed the question whether Pietism was to be seen as a consequence of or a reaction to confessionalisation in the Reformation era. A similar approach was chosen for a second conference, held in the Swedish university town of Umeå on November 17-18, 2005. Should Pietism be perceived as a promoter of or a reaction against modernity? Are revivals and awakenings to be seen as inherent components of Pietism? Or should they rather be viewed as new sociological phenomena integrated into Pietism on a later stage? Which components of pious theology and practice were applied and what function did they serve in clerical and civil discourse? Either way, how do revivals relate to Pietism, and how do they relate to Enlightenment? This volume presents the proceedings of an inspiring conference, taking a further step in the ‘globalisation’ of Pietism studies, as is demonstrated here in particular by the power of research in the Nordic area. Above all, this collection of papers helps to understand Pietism and revivalism as attempts to resist the breakthrough of secularizing tendencies in the modern world. While doing so, they themselves at the same time were modern in building up a counteroffensive of rechristianization, using all contemporary means of communication and organization in the public sphere, adapting their own traditions to new political and cultural contexts, and creating constructions of the religious past.

Protestant Communalism in the Trans-Atlantic World, 1650–1850

Author : Philip Lockley
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 113748487X
Total Pages : 230 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (374 download)

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Book Synopsis Protestant Communalism in the Trans-Atlantic World, 1650–1850 by : Philip Lockley

Download or read book Protestant Communalism in the Trans-Atlantic World, 1650–1850 written by Philip Lockley and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-04-29 with total page 230 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book explores the trans-Atlantic history of Protestant traditions of communalism – communities of shared property. The sixteenth-century Reformation may have destroyed monasticism in northern Europe, but Protestant Christianity has not always denied common property. Between 1650 and 1850, a range of Protestant groups adopted communal goods, frequently after crossing the Atlantic to North America: the Ephrata community, the Shakers, the Harmony Society, the Community of True Inspiration, and others. Early Mormonism also developed with a communal dimension, challenging its surrounding Protestant culture of individualism and the free market. In a series of focussed and survey studies, this book recovers the trans-Atlantic networks and narratives, ideas and influences, which shaped Protestant communalism across two centuries of early modernity.

A Companion to German Pietism, 1660-1800

Author : Douglas Shantz
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004283862
Total Pages : 585 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (42 download)

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Book Synopsis A Companion to German Pietism, 1660-1800 by : Douglas Shantz

Download or read book A Companion to German Pietism, 1660-1800 written by Douglas Shantz and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2014-11-06 with total page 585 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This Companion offers an introduction to recent scholarship on early modern German Pietism, a movement that arose in the late 17th century German Empire. Pietism introduced a new paradigm to German Protestantism that included personal renewal, new birth, women-dominated conventicles, and millennialism.

Pietism in Germany and North America 1680-1820

Author : Jonathan Strom
Publisher : Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.
ISBN 13 : 9780754664017
Total Pages : 310 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (64 download)

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Book Synopsis Pietism in Germany and North America 1680-1820 by : Jonathan Strom

Download or read book Pietism in Germany and North America 1680-1820 written by Jonathan Strom and published by Ashgate Publishing, Ltd.. This book was released on 2009 with total page 310 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This collection explores different approaches to contextualizing and conceptualizing the history of Pietism, particularly German-speaking Pietistic groups who migrated to the British colonies in North America during the long eighteenth century. Emerging in the seventeenth century, Pietism was closely related to Puritanism, sharing similar evangelical and heterogeneous characteristics. The importance of Pietism in shaping Protestant society and culture in Europe and North America has long been recognized, but as a topic of scholarly inquiry, it has until now received little interdisciplinary attention. Offering essays by leading scholars from a range of fields this volume provides the first overview of the subject, helping to situate Pietism in the broader Atlantic context, and making an important contribution to understanding religious life in Europe and colonial North America during the eighteenth century.

An Introduction to German Pietism

Author : Douglas H. Shantz
Publisher : JHU Press
ISBN 13 : 1421408309
Total Pages : 516 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (214 download)

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Book Synopsis An Introduction to German Pietism by : Douglas H. Shantz

Download or read book An Introduction to German Pietism written by Douglas H. Shantz and published by JHU Press. This book was released on 2013-04-15 with total page 516 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An up-to-date portrait of a defining moment in the Christian story—its beginnings, worldview, and cultural significance. Winner of the Dale W. Brown Book Award of the Young Center for Anabaptists and Pietist Studies at Elizabethtown College An Introduction to German Pietism provides a scholarly investigation of a movement that changed the history of Protestantism. The Pietists can be credited with inspiring both Evangelicalism and modern individualism. Taking into account new discoveries in the field, Douglas H. Shantz focuses on features of Pietism that made it religiously and culturally significant. He discusses the social and religious roots of Pietism in earlier German Radicalism and situates Pietist beginnings in three cities: Frankfurt, Leipzig, and Halle. Shantz also examines the cultural worlds of the Pietists, including Pietism and gender, Pietists as readers and translators of the Bible, and Pietists as missionaries to the far reaches of the world. He not only considers Pietism's role in shaping modern western religion and culture but also reflects on the relevance of the Pietist religious paradigm of today. The first survey of German Pietism in English in forty years, An Introduction to German Pietism provides a narrative interpretation of the movement as a whole. The book's accessible tone and concise portrayal of an extensive and complex subject make it ideal for courses on early modern Christianity and German history. The book includes appendices with translations of German primary sources and discussion questions.

The Oxford Handbook of Early Evangelicalism

Author : Jonathan Yeager
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190863315
Total Pages : 681 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (98 download)

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Book Synopsis The Oxford Handbook of Early Evangelicalism by : Jonathan Yeager

Download or read book The Oxford Handbook of Early Evangelicalism written by Jonathan Yeager and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2022 with total page 681 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Evangelicalism, a worldwide interdenominational movement within Protestant Christianity, is one of the most popular and diverse religious movements in the world today. Evangelicals maintain the belief that the essence of the Gospel consists of the doctrine of salvation by grace, through faith in Jesus' atonement. Evangelicals can be found on every continent and among nearly all Christian denominations. The origin of this group of people has been traced to the turn of the eighteenth century, with roots in the Puritan and Pietist movements in England and Germany. The earliest evangelicals could be found among Anglicans, Baptists, Congregationalists, Methodists, Moravians, and Presbyterians throughout North America, Britain, and Western Europe, and included some of the foremost names of the age, such as Jonathan Edwards, John Wesley, and George Whitefield. Early evangelicals were abolitionists, historians, hymn writers, missionaries, philanthropists, poets, preachers, and theologians. They participated in the major cultural and intellectual currents of the day, and founded institutions of higher education not limited to Dartmouth College, Brown University, and Princeton University. The Oxford Handbook of Early Evangelicalism provides the most authoritative and comprehensive overview of the significant figures and religious communities associated with early evangelicalism within the contextual and cultural environment of the long eighteenth century, with essays written by the world's leading experts in the field of eighteenth-century studies.

Babel of the Atlantic

Author : Bethany Wiggin
Publisher : Penn State Press
ISBN 13 : 0271084006
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (71 download)

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Book Synopsis Babel of the Atlantic by : Bethany Wiggin

Download or read book Babel of the Atlantic written by Bethany Wiggin and published by Penn State Press. This book was released on 2021-09-30 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite shifting trends in the study of Oceanic Atlantic history, the colonial Atlantic world as it is described by historians today continues to be a largely English-only space; even when other language communities are examined, they, too, are considered to be monolingual and discrete. Babel of the Atlantic pushes back against this monolingual fallacy by documenting multilingualism, translation, and fluid movement across linguistic borders. Focusing on Philadelphia and surrounding areas that include Germantown, Bethlehem, and the so-called Indian country to the west, this volume demonstrates the importance of viewing inhabitants not as members of isolated language communities, whether English, German, Lenape, Mohican, or others, but as creators of a vibrant zone of mixed languages and shifting politics. Organized around four themes—religion, education, race and abolitionism, and material culture and architecture—and drawing from archives such as almanacs, newspapers, and the material world, the chapters in this volume show how polyglot, tolerant, and multilingual spaces encouraged diverse peoples to coexist. Contributors examine subjects such as the multicultural Moravian communities in colonial Pennsylvania, the Charity School movement of the 1750s, and the activities of Quaker abolitionists, showing how educational and religious movements addressed and embraced cultural and linguistic variety. Drawing early American scholarship beyond the normative narrative of monolingualism, this volume will be invaluable to historians and sociolinguists whose work focuses on Pennsylvania and colonial, revolutionary, and antebellum America. In addition to the editor, the contributors include Craig Atwood, Patrick M. Erben, Cynthia G. Falk, Katherine Faull, Wolfgang Flügel, Katharine Gerbner, Maruice Jackson, Lisa Minardi, Jürgen Overhoff, and Birte Pfleger.

Globalized Peripheries

Author : Jutta Wimmler
Publisher : Boydell & Brewer
ISBN 13 : 1783274751
Total Pages : 285 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (832 download)

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Book Synopsis Globalized Peripheries by : Jutta Wimmler

Download or read book Globalized Peripheries written by Jutta Wimmler and published by Boydell & Brewer. This book was released on 2020 with total page 285 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Globalized Peripheries examines the commodity flows and financial ties within Central and Eastern Europe in order to situate these regions as important contributors to Atlantic trade networks.

Christian Thought in the Twenty-First Century

Author : Douglas H. Shantz
Publisher : Wipf and Stock Publishers
ISBN 13 : 1621891852
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (218 download)

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Book Synopsis Christian Thought in the Twenty-First Century by : Douglas H. Shantz

Download or read book Christian Thought in the Twenty-First Century written by Douglas H. Shantz and published by Wipf and Stock Publishers. This book was released on 2012-04-01 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this volume some of the outstanding Christian scholars of our day reflect on how their minds have changed, how their academic fields have changed over the course of their careers, and the pressing issues that Christian scholars will need to address in the twenty-first century. This volume offers an accessible portrait of key trends in the world of Christian scholarship today. Christian Thought in the Twenty-First Century features scholars from Great Britain, Canada, the United States, and Switzerland. The contributors represent a wide variety of academic backgrounds--from biblical studies to theology, to religious studies, to history, English literature, philosophy, law, and ethics. This book offers a personal glimpse of Christian scholars in a self-reflective mode, capturing their honest reflections on the changing state of the academy and on changes in their own minds and outlooks. The breadth and depth of insight afforded by these contributions provide rich soil for a reader's own reflections, and an agenda that will occupy Christian thinkers well into the twenty-first century.

The Halle Orphanage as Scientific Community

Author : Kelly Joan Whitmer
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 022624380X
Total Pages : 213 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (262 download)

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Book Synopsis The Halle Orphanage as Scientific Community by : Kelly Joan Whitmer

Download or read book The Halle Orphanage as Scientific Community written by Kelly Joan Whitmer and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2015-05-12 with total page 213 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Founded around 1700 by a group of German Lutherans known as Pietists, the Halle Orphanage became the institutional headquarters of a universal seminar that still stands largely intact today. It was the base of an educational, charitable, and scientific community and consisted of an elite school for the sons of noblemen; schools for the sons of artisans, soldiers, and preachers; a hospital; an apothecary; a bookshop; a botanical garden; and a cabinet of curiosity containing architectural models, naturalia, and scientific instruments. Yet, its reputation as a Pietist enclave inhabited largely by young people has prevented the organization from being taken seriously as a kind of scientific academy—even though, Kelly Joan Whitmer shows, this is precisely what it was. The Halle Orphanage as Scientific Community calls into question a long-standing tendency to view German Pietists as anti-science and anti-Enlightenment, arguing that these tendencies have drawn attention away from what was actually going on inside the orphanage. Whitmer shows how the orphanage’s identity as a scientific community hinged on its promotion of philosophical eclecticism as a tool for assimilating perspectives and observations and working to perfect one’s abilities to observe methodically. Because of the link between eclecticism and observation, Whitmer reveals, those teaching and training in Halle’s Orphanage contributed to the transformation of scientific observation and its related activities in this period.

Reclaiming Pietism

Author : Roger E. Olson
Publisher : Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1467443190
Total Pages : 204 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (674 download)

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Book Synopsis Reclaiming Pietism by : Roger E. Olson

Download or read book Reclaiming Pietism written by Roger E. Olson and published by Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. This book was released on 2015-01-08 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The historical movement known as Pietism emphasized the response of faith and inward transformation as crucial aspects of conversion to Christ. Unfortunately, Pietism today is often equated with a “holier-than-thou” spiritual attitude, religious legalism, or withdrawal from involvement in society. In this book Roger Olson and Christian Collins Winn argue that classical, historical Pietism is an influential stream in evangelical Christianity and that it must be recovered as a resource for evangelical renewal. They challenge misconceptions of Pietism by describing the origins, development, and main themes of the historical movement and the spiritual-theological ethos stemming from it. The book also explores Pietism’s influence on contemporary Christian theologians and spiritual leaders such as Richard Foster and Stanley Grenz. Watch a 2015 interview with the authors of this book here:

The Enterprisers

Author : Igor Fedyukin
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190845023
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (98 download)

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Book Synopsis The Enterprisers by : Igor Fedyukin

Download or read book The Enterprisers written by Igor Fedyukin and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2019-04-30 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Enterprisers traces the emergence of the "modern" school in Russia during the reigns of Peter I and his immediate successors, up to the accession of Catherine II. Creation of the new, secular, technically-oriented schools based on the imported Western European blueprints is traditionally presented as the key element in Peter I's transformation of Russia. The tsar, it is assumed, needed schools to train officers and engineers for his new army and the navy, and so he personally designed these new institutions and forced them upon his unwilling subjects. In this sense, school also stands in as a metaphor for modern institutions in Russia in general, which are likewise seen as created from the top down, by the forceful state, in response to its military and technological needs. Yet, in reality, Peter I himself never wrote much about education, and while he championed "learning" in a broad sense, he had remarkably little to say about the ways schools and schooling should be organized. Nor were his general and admirals, including foreigners in Russian service, keen on promoting formal schooling: for them, practical apprenticeship still remained the preferred method of training. Rather, as Fedyukin argues in this book, the trajectories of institutional change were determined by the efforts of "administrative entrepreneurs"-or projecteurs, as they were also called-who built new schools as they sought to achieve diverse career goals, promoted their own pet ideas, advanced their claims for expertise, and competed for status and resources. By drawing on a wealth of unpublished archival sources, Fedyukin explores the "micropolitics" behind the key episodes of educational innovation in the first half of the eighteenth century and offers an entirely new way of thinking about "Petrine revolution" and about the early modern state in Russia.

Before Photography

Author : Kirsten Belgum
Publisher : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 3110696444
Total Pages : 395 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (16 download)

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Book Synopsis Before Photography by : Kirsten Belgum

Download or read book Before Photography written by Kirsten Belgum and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2021-03-08 with total page 395 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Recent years have seen a wealth of new scholarship on the history of photography, cinema, digital media, and video games, yet less attention has been devoted to earlier forms of visual culture. The nineteenth century witnessed a dramatic proliferation of new technologies, devices, and print processes, which provided growing audiences with access to more visual material than ever before. This volume brings together the best aspects of interdisciplinary scholarship to enhance our understanding of the production, dissemination, and consumption of visual media prior to the predominance of photographic reproduction. By setting these examples against the backdrop of demographic, educational, political, commercial, scientific, and industrial shifts in Central Europe, these essays reveal the diverse ways that innovation in visual culture affected literature, philosophy, journalism, the history of perception, exhibition culture, and the representation of nature and human life in both print and material culture in local, national, transnational, and global contexts.