Photosynthate Allocation Patterns And Mode Of Postfire Reproduction In Two Shrub Species From The California Chaparral

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Photosynthate Allocation Patterns and Mode of Postfire Reproduction in Two Shrub Species from the California Chaparral

Author : Steven Richard Sparks
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 382 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis Photosynthate Allocation Patterns and Mode of Postfire Reproduction in Two Shrub Species from the California Chaparral by : Steven Richard Sparks

Download or read book Photosynthate Allocation Patterns and Mode of Postfire Reproduction in Two Shrub Species from the California Chaparral written by Steven Richard Sparks and published by . This book was released on 1989 with total page 382 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Age-specific patterns of photosynthate allocation in leaves were investigated for two chaparral shrubs, Adenostoma fasciculatum and Ceanothus greggii, in five stands of various ages (i.e., years since the previous fire). Branches of shrubs were labeled with 14CO2, and seasonal allocation of 14C-labeled photosynthate to storage, defense, metabolic, and structural compounds was followed. Age-specific allocation patterns were found only in the spring, when older shrubs showed a reduced allocation of photosynthate within leaves to storage compounds. Older shrubs may be less able than younger shrubs to allocate photosynthate to storage compounds when demands on photosynthate for growth are high. This pattern indicates that there may be some physiological basis for the observation of chaparral "senescence." The influence of this "senescence" on postfire sprouting was investigated by quantifying the proportion of standing dead biomass in A. fasciculatum, as well as other shrub structural characteristics, before an experimental burn. After the burn, sprout production during the first postfire season was determined and correlated with prefire structural characteristics. Shrubs that had high proportions of dead biomass before the fire tended to show less postfire sprout production per unit prefire shrub size. Additionally, shrubs which were large before the fire tended to be large after the fire. Photosynthate allocation to shoots and roots was investigated for seedlings of both species. For seedlings of C. greggii, increased proportional allocation of labeled photosynthate belowground was always accompanied by an increase in the root:shoot ratio. But, A. fasciculatum seedlings, during the second season of growth, showed an increase in the proportional allocation of labeled photosynthate to roots which was not manifested as an increase in the root:shoot ratio. Seedlings of A. fasciculatum, a sprouting shrub, may be accumulating photosynthate belowground as nonstructural carbohydrates necessary to support eventual postfire sprouting. Seedlings of C. greggii, an obligate seeding species, did not appear to have this constraint. The accumulation of nonstructural carbohydrates belowground to support sprouting may be a cost of sprouting that obligate seeding species are able to avoid

Dissertation Abstracts International

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 792 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Dissertation Abstracts International by :

Download or read book Dissertation Abstracts International written by and published by . This book was released on 1990 with total page 792 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Uncoupling Impacts of Drought and Short-interval Fire on Chaparral in Southern California Using Time-sequential Landsat Imagery

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 101 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (114 download)

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Book Synopsis Uncoupling Impacts of Drought and Short-interval Fire on Chaparral in Southern California Using Time-sequential Landsat Imagery by :

Download or read book Uncoupling Impacts of Drought and Short-interval Fire on Chaparral in Southern California Using Time-sequential Landsat Imagery written by and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 101 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: errestrial vegetation growth, climate variation, and fire activity have been strongly coupled since the advent of vascular plants approximately 420 million years before present. Rises in anthropogenic land cover transformation, invasive species propagation, carbon emission, and artificial sources of fire ignition in recent centuries have greatly affected terrestrial plant communities. The populous, semi-arid region of southern California is marked by heightened fire activity and extreme drought episodes in recent decades. Contemporary regimes (spatial-temporal patterns) of fire and drought may exceed historical ranges of variability and thus threaten native plant communities, which may have adapted to quite different disturbance regimes. Postfire recovery of southern California shrub species (chaparral) may be impeded by fires that recur at short intervals or by severe drought. Evaluating the response of chaparral to compound fire-drought effects is key in conservation planning under projected climate, land use, and fire regime scenarios. Time-sequential remote sensing based on Landsat satellite imagery is a useful way to characterize shrub cover change over regional extents and several decades, and may provide a broader perspective than much of the ecological and biogeographic literature, which is mostly based on field studies. Landscape-scale variations of shrub type, soil reflectance, and terrain may introduce spatial bias into signals of change in fractional shrub cover (FSC) based on spectral vegetation indices (SVIs), including Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Chapter 2 evaluates these potential error sources in the application of postfire recovery assessment based on Landsat image series. Chapter 2 is based on three chaparral landscapes having internally-varied postfire recovery trajectories, and involves a cross-stratification variable-control approach. Results show that differences in shrub type linked to biomass variations can significantly influence linear NDVI-FSC relations, and such effects are accentuated in postfire recovery metrics based on NDVI difference. Minor effects due to soil spectral reflectance differences were observed at one site, but no significant effect of terrain illumination variability was found. Insights from Chapter 2 guided the methodologies of Chapters 3 and 4, which evaluate regional-scale influences of repeated fire and of drought on chaparral recovery, respectively. A regional map of change in FSC between the periods 1984–1989 and 2014–2018 was derived by transforming Landsat NDVI trajectories into calibrated estimates of FSC within 49 manually-delineated portions of the regional chaparral community, based on detailed shrub cover maps derived from high spatial resolution aerial imagery. Postfire recovery patterns were evaluated in 246 areas which burned in the period 1985–2008 and represent varied numbers of burns (one to three) and fire return intervals (1 to 23 years). Fire-return interval was not significantly related to recovery, except at sites that had burned three times within 25 years. Mean precipitation, soil hydrologic properties, and chaparral community type were significant predictors of recovery in the region. Limited postfire recovery was most acute in transmontane ecotonal chamise sites bounding the Colorado Desert. Chapter 4 addresses the influence of drought on postfire chaparral recovery in montane, cismontane and transmontane areas of southern California (deemed as climate zones). I evaluated drought based on summer (June–August) and wet-season (November–May) aggregates of precipitation, Palmer Drought Severity Index (PDSI) and climatic water deficit (CWD), in years preceding and following fire events. Only prefire drought was significant in postfire recovery of montane chaparral. Drought before and in the first and second wet seasons after fire were significant controls on recovery in the other climate zones. High-elevation transmontane chamise sites most impacted by drought (with spatially variable recovery patterns) were selected to evaluate landscape-level predictors of recovery. Elevation, soil permeability, chaparral community type, and FSC-normalized Landsat Visible Atmospherically-Resistant Index (VARI) were significant predictors of landscape-scale variation of recovery under drought impact (R2 = 0.53). Based on twelve proximal (once-burned) chaparral stands that exhibited varied recoveries, I found that high CWD in immediate-postfire and several prefire wet seasons explained ~42 percent of recovery variation. The results of this work suggest that drought effects on resprouting vigor or fire intensity are limiting factors of postfire chaparral recovery in southern California. This dissertation represents the most temporally- and spatially-extensive assessment of postfire chaparral recovery yet conducted, providing insights (regarding the importance of drought versus frequent fire in recovery) which may help to inform land management and conservation efforts in the region. This work has also advanced the technical application of time-sequential satellite imagery and spatial analysis in the study of ecological change, and may segue to greater advancements in vegetation monitoring and ecological theory.

Shrubs of California's Chaparral, Timberland, and Woodland

Author : Charles L. Bolsinger
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 60 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (319 download)

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Book Synopsis Shrubs of California's Chaparral, Timberland, and Woodland by : Charles L. Bolsinger

Download or read book Shrubs of California's Chaparral, Timberland, and Woodland written by Charles L. Bolsinger and published by . This book was released on 1989 with total page 60 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Post-fire Effects in Chaparral and Oak Ecosystems of Northern California

Author : Abigail M. Jones
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 80 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (129 download)

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Book Synopsis Post-fire Effects in Chaparral and Oak Ecosystems of Northern California by : Abigail M. Jones

Download or read book Post-fire Effects in Chaparral and Oak Ecosystems of Northern California written by Abigail M. Jones and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 80 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The issue of wildfires, hazard fuels management, and post-fire tree mortality has become an increasingly common topic in the western United States. This thesis is composed of two studies, with the first study, Chapter 1, examining fuel treatment effectiveness and the second study, Chapter 2, striving to characterize post-fire mortality in oaks. Prior to wildfire, fuel reduction projects may take place to decrease the likelihood of high severity fire around human infrastructure and communities. Within California’s chaparral ecosystems, common treatment types include hand-thinning, prescribed burning, mechanical mastication, and mechanical mastication followed with prescribed burning. Because chaparral has a longer historical fire return interval and these ecosystems do not need frequent fire disturbance, the efficacy of these treatment types is debated. Our study had the rare opportunity to collect data on fine woody fuel loading, shrub density, and vegetation both immediately before and one year following wildfire in northern California’s Whiskeytown National Recreation Area. Using these comparisons, our goal was to determine the post-fire response of each treatment type and determine an effective fuels treatment in chaparral to mitigate fire behavior, while maintaining ecosystem integrity and supporting native species habitat. The severity of the wildfire was moderate across the study site and did not differ among treatments. Post-fire live shrub density and live shrub height also were not influenced by treatment type, but oak dominated sites had greater live shrub density after wildfire. Fine woody fuel loading levels differed by treatment type, with prescribed burned units having the greatest levels in both chaparral and oak sites. Fine woody fuel consumption was lowest in hand-thinned units. Total plant species richness increased in all treatment types following wildfire, largely driven by an increase in exotic species, as native plant cover decreased and exotic species cover increased across all treatments. This study suggests that areas of chaparral may need to be retreated sooner than this timeframe to reduce fire severity. However, retreating these systems may not be economically feasible and it remains unclear if treatments will meet fuel and fire behavior objectives. Land managers are concerned about post-fire mortality of trees and rely on statistical models of tree mortality in post-fire decision making. While many studies have evaluated the accuracy of these models in conifers, the performance of these models on hardwood species, specifically oak species, has been understudied. Models, such as FOFEM and FVS-FFE, can help land managers to predict which trees will die following fire and can help in hazard tree removal and post-fire salvage logging operations. These models, however, have been exclusively developed using western United States conifer species, bringing into question the veracity of these models for hardwood species. The purpose of this study was to test current mortality models using observations from wildfire and prescribed burn sites in northern California for two oak species, California black oak (Quercus kelloggii) and canyon live oak (Quercus chrysolepis). Our findings suggest that both modeling approaches performed well, but Random Forest was better at predicting probability of mortality for an imbalanced dataset. When using imbalanced datasets, logistic regression can underpredict mortality, which can have negative repercussions for land managers dealing with recently burned ecosystems containing oaks.

Low-volume and Slow-burning Vegetation for Planting on Clearings in California Chaparral

Author : Eamor C. Nord
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 52 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Low-volume and Slow-burning Vegetation for Planting on Clearings in California Chaparral by : Eamor C. Nord

Download or read book Low-volume and Slow-burning Vegetation for Planting on Clearings in California Chaparral written by Eamor C. Nord and published by . This book was released on 1977 with total page 52 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Vegetation that is low-growing and either low in volume, slow bwning, or both, is needed for reduction of fire hazard on fuelbreaks and other brush-cleared areas in California. Of over 50 shrub species and many grass species that were test planted, about 20 shrubs and an equal number of grasses were chosen for plot and field trials. Creeping sage, a few saltbushes. and a few grasses-mostly perennials-are adapted within the wide range of chaparral site conditions, and were successfully established by direct seedings as well as by other cultural methods on these sites. Shrub test results are tabulated and characteristics of each of the more promising species are described. With attention to usefulness for planting; techniques for collecting or treating seed to improve gennination and for propagating plants; and methods for establishing these plants on wildland sites.

Spatial and Temporal Variation in Biomass Accumulation in Southern California Chaparral

Author : Kellie Ann Uyeda
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781339218540
Total Pages : 116 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (185 download)

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Book Synopsis Spatial and Temporal Variation in Biomass Accumulation in Southern California Chaparral by : Kellie Ann Uyeda

Download or read book Spatial and Temporal Variation in Biomass Accumulation in Southern California Chaparral written by Kellie Ann Uyeda and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 116 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Wildfires are a common occurrence in chaparral shrublands, and post-fire patterns of biomass accumulation are important for understanding ecosystem productivity and fuel available for future fires. In this research, I examine patterns of biomass accumulation in southern California chaparral shrublands at early and late stages of post-fire recovery using a combination of detailed field work and remote sensing. Using field measurements of a site with adjacent stands of varying ages and high spatial resolution imagery, I examine patterns of species composition and associated levels of biomass to characterize long-term patterns in biomass accumulation. I also evaluate the potential for utilizing shrub growth ring widths to track annual biomass accumulation in the first decade of post-fire recovery, and test for the relationship between biomass and spatial variation in factors related to the energy and water balance. In addition, I examine the potential for extending the use of shrub growth rings to track biomass across larger spatial extents using satellite-based growth metrics. The study of stands of varying ages reveals that biomass shows substantial variation even within stands of the same age, and that species composition is different in younger stands of chaparral compared to the more mature stands. In the study of growth rings, I find that while measuring growth rings widths is a valuable method for tracking biomass accumulation in the first decade following a fire, there is no apparent relationship between biomass and factors related to the energy and water balance. Annual biomass growth, as estimated from shrub growth ring widths, shows a promising relationship with satellite-based metrics of annual growth, indicating the potential for further study of the relationship over larger spatial extents.

Spatial and Temporal Variation in Biomass Accumulation in Southern California Chaparral

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 99 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (941 download)

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Book Synopsis Spatial and Temporal Variation in Biomass Accumulation in Southern California Chaparral by :

Download or read book Spatial and Temporal Variation in Biomass Accumulation in Southern California Chaparral written by and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 99 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Wildfires are a common occurrence in chaparral shrublands, and post-fire patterns of biomass accumulation are important for understanding ecosystem productivity and fuel available for future fires. In this research, I examine patterns of biomass accumulation in southern California chaparral shrublands at early and late stages of post-fire recovery using a combination of detailed field work and remote sensing. Using field measurements of a site with adjacent stands of varying ages and high spatial resolution imagery, I examine patterns of species composition and associated levels of biomass to characterize long-term patterns in biomass accumulation. I also evaluate the potential for utilizing shrub growth ring widths to track annual biomass accumulation in the first decade of post-fire recovery, and test for the relationship between biomass and spatial variation in factors related to the energy and water balance. In addition, I examine the potential for extending the use of shrub growth rings to track biomass across larger spatial extents using satellite-based growth metrics. The study of stands of varying ages reveals that biomass shows substantial variation even within stands of the same age, and that species composition is different in younger stands of chaparral compared to the more mature stands. In the study of growth rings, I find that while measuring growth rings widths is a valuable method for tracking biomass accumulation in the first decade following a fire, there is no apparent relationship between biomass and factors related to the energy and water balance. Annual biomass growth, as estimated from shrub growth ring widths, shows a promising relationship with satellite-based metrics of annual growth, indicating the potential for further study of the relationship over larger spatial extents.

Plant-herbivore Dynamics During Early Postfire Years in a Southern California Chamise Chaparral Stand

Author : James Norman Mills
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 178 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Plant-herbivore Dynamics During Early Postfire Years in a Southern California Chamise Chaparral Stand by : James Norman Mills

Download or read book Plant-herbivore Dynamics During Early Postfire Years in a Southern California Chamise Chaparral Stand written by James Norman Mills and published by . This book was released on 1985 with total page 178 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

American Doctoral Dissertations

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 760 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis American Doctoral Dissertations by :

Download or read book American Doctoral Dissertations written by and published by . This book was released on 1989 with total page 760 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Plant-herbivore Dynamics During Early Postfire Years in a Southern California Chamise Chaparral Stand

Author : James Norman Mills
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 160 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (123 download)

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Book Synopsis Plant-herbivore Dynamics During Early Postfire Years in a Southern California Chamise Chaparral Stand by : James Norman Mills

Download or read book Plant-herbivore Dynamics During Early Postfire Years in a Southern California Chamise Chaparral Stand written by James Norman Mills and published by . This book was released on 1985 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Resource Availability and Energy Allocation in Two Adjacent California Annual Plant Communities

Author : Stephen Nicholas Turitzin
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 302 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Resource Availability and Energy Allocation in Two Adjacent California Annual Plant Communities by : Stephen Nicholas Turitzin

Download or read book Resource Availability and Energy Allocation in Two Adjacent California Annual Plant Communities written by Stephen Nicholas Turitzin and published by . This book was released on 1976 with total page 302 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Postfire Regrowth Trajectories of Chamise Chaparral Based on Multi-temporal Landsat Imagery

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 38 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (914 download)

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Book Synopsis Postfire Regrowth Trajectories of Chamise Chaparral Based on Multi-temporal Landsat Imagery by :

Download or read book Postfire Regrowth Trajectories of Chamise Chaparral Based on Multi-temporal Landsat Imagery written by and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page 38 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Assessments of postfire recovery outcomes for the chamise chaparral shrublands of southern California provide a basis for land managers and ecologists to identify long-term changes in this sensitive ecosystem. Postfire vegetation recovery assessments based on fieldplot vegetation sampling and aerial image analysis have proven to be limited in coverage and inefficient for large areas of this landscape type. This study evaluates the potential of remotely sensed regrowth trajectories based on multi-temporal Landsat 4, 5, 7, and 8 satellite image observations for the postfire recovery assessment of chamise. Methods included: 1) an a priori determination of postfire shrub fractional cover changes based on multi-date high spatial resolution orthoimagery, 2) statistical testing to assess the sensitivity of regrowth trajectories based on several spectral vegetation indices and applied metrics to the recovery outcomes, and 3) an examination of regrowth trajectories which extend 19-29 years postfire relative to field-based measurements from other studies. Results provide a basis for interpretations about the sensitivities of the postfire regrowth trajectories derived from Landsat surface reflectance data to changes in the shrub matrix at various spatial and temporal scales. A primary finding was that several measures, including the Regeneration Index and another proposed here which is termed the Scaled Recovery Metric, enhanced the signals of postfire recovery derived from the multi-temporal trajectories and increased their comparability. Findings indicate that several of the spectral vegetation indices (NDVI, NDMI, NBR, and NBR2) were sensitive to long-term postfire changes in chamise, and that these same indices were statistically significant indicators of postfire recovery outcomes when certain metrics were applied. This study provides an overview of some advantages, limitations, and technical considerations of deriving postfire regrowth trajectories from Landsat imagery to assess postfire recovery outcomes of chamise.

Plant Growth and Erosion in Two Chaparral Burns in Southern California

Author : Clark H. Gleason
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 94 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (646 download)

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Book Synopsis Plant Growth and Erosion in Two Chaparral Burns in Southern California by : Clark H. Gleason

Download or read book Plant Growth and Erosion in Two Chaparral Burns in Southern California written by Clark H. Gleason and published by . This book was released on 1950 with total page 94 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Shrubs of California's Chaparral, Timberland, and Woodland

Author : C. L. Bolsinger
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 50 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (676 download)

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Book Synopsis Shrubs of California's Chaparral, Timberland, and Woodland by : C. L. Bolsinger

Download or read book Shrubs of California's Chaparral, Timberland, and Woodland written by C. L. Bolsinger and published by . This book was released on 1989 with total page 50 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Patterns and Trajectories of Postfire Plant Communities in Greater Yellowstone

Author : Nathaniel Kiel
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (144 download)

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Book Synopsis Patterns and Trajectories of Postfire Plant Communities in Greater Yellowstone by : Nathaniel Kiel

Download or read book Patterns and Trajectories of Postfire Plant Communities in Greater Yellowstone written by Nathaniel Kiel and published by . This book was released on 2024 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Changing global drivers are eroding ecosystem resilience. As change continues, determining the implications of ecosystem transformations must be coupled with "climate change education" and evidence-based undergraduate biology curricula to train the next generation of scientists. My dissertation addresses each need in turn. First, I use remote sensing and field studies to understand the drivers and effects of poor subalpine forest recovery following large, stand-replacing wildfire in the U.S. Northern Rocky Mountains. I ask: (1) how extensive is forest conversion to sparse or non-forest three decades after the 1988 Yellowstone fires, and what drives its distribution? (2) how does forest conversion affect subalpine forest understory plant communities, aboveground carbon stocks, and the potential for forest recovery? and (3) how do anomalously frequent (30-year fire-return interval) stand-replacing wildfires in forests adapted to historically infrequent (125-year fire-return interval) fires alter understory plant communities? I complement these studies with the development and assessment of new undergraduate curricula on systems thinking and biogeochemical cycling, incorporating gameplay and simple simulation modeling to ask: how do student attitudes toward and understanding of the nitrogen cycle change following game- and inquiry-based learning? Subalpine forest conversion 30 years after the 1988 fires was extensive, covering ~41,000 hectares of previously forested area primarily at higher elevations and further from surrounding unburned forest. While much of this area appears "locked in" to sparse or non-forest, other areas may yet recover to forest owing to seed pressure from ex situ and in situ sources. Understory plant communities increasingly resembled meadow communities where tree densities were lowest, and aboveground carbon stock recovery was diminished. Understory communities were also affected by minimal forest recovery following anomalously frequent fire, with shifts toward shade-intolerant species and species from lower elevation zones adapted to drier conditions. Finally, undergraduate students in an intermediate general ecology course self-identified improved attitudes toward and understanding of the nitrogen cycle, largely attributing these changes to gameplay of "The N Game" and active lecture. This research elucidates how changing climate and disturbance will alter forest ecosystems and how evidence-based teaching approaches may help train undergraduate students to address these and other global challenges.

Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities

Author : Brain F. Chabot
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9400948301
Total Pages : 704 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (9 download)

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Book Synopsis Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities by : Brain F. Chabot

Download or read book Physiological Ecology of North American Plant Communities written by Brain F. Chabot and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-12-06 with total page 704 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Although, as W.D. Billings notes in his chapter in this book. the development of physiological ecology can be traced back to the very beginnings of the study of ecology it is clear that the modern development of this field in North America is due in the large part to the efforts of Billings alone. The foundation that Billings laid in the late 1950s came from his own studies on deserts and subsequently arctic and alpine plants, and also from his enormous success in instilling enthusiasm for the field in the numerous students attracted to the plant ecology program at Duke University. Billings' own studies provided the model for subsequent work in this field. Physiological techniques. normally confined to the laboratory. were brought into the field to examine processes under natural environmental conditions. These field studies were accompanied by experiments under controlled conditions where the relative impact of various factors could be assessed and further where genetic as opposed to environmental influences could be separated. This blending of field and laboratory approaches promoted the design of experiments which were of direct relevance to understanding the distribution and abundance of plants in nature. Physiological mechanisms were studied and assessed in the context of the functioning of plants under natural conditions rather than as an end in itself.