History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9789811589645
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (896 download)

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Book Synopsis History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty by : Xuezhi Zhang

Download or read book History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty written by Xuezhi Zhang and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book starts with the classification of the main views of different thinkers after the study of the original materials, which covers all the thinkers' thoughts and conceptions. A major objective of this book is to reveal the ideas of the philosophers. Key ideological opinions are stated with the former discussion of exact questions and further clarification of their philosophical meaning, which enables the readers to better understand the meaning and value of the philosophical thoughts. Since the logic and history are in accordance with each other, a frame of conception is formed then. Then, the author clearly explains the logical relationship in the frame mentioned before, as well as the formation of the key concepts and their relationship.

History of Thoughts in the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis History of Thoughts in the Ming Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book History of Thoughts in the Ming Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “History of Thoughts in the Ming Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

The Urban Life of the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781844643561
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (435 download)

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Book Synopsis The Urban Life of the Ming Dynasty by : Baoliang Chen

Download or read book The Urban Life of the Ming Dynasty written by Baoliang Chen and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book examines the history of life in the big cities of China's Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), including Beijing, Nanjing, Suzhou, Hangzhou, and Kaifeng. The coverage includes information on: the clothing of urban officials and residents * their diet * utensils * ceremonies * festivals * the words and deeds of the residents * commercial activities * the contrasts between life within the royal houses and life within an ordinary house in the city. This period of Chinese urban history is unique because, although it developed from traditions of the Han and Tang dynasties, it also heralded a strong break with tradition. As the world started to modernize, so did China, and this fascinating book shows how and where this first occurred. (Series: Insight on Ancient China) [Subject: History, Chinese Studies, Asian Studies, Urban Studies, Cultural Studies]

Ming China, 1368-1644

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Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 1442204907
Total Pages : 173 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (422 download)

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Book Synopsis Ming China, 1368-1644 by : John W. Dardess

Download or read book Ming China, 1368-1644 written by John W. Dardess and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2012 with total page 173 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This engaging, deeply informed book provides the first concise history of one of China's most important eras. Leading scholar John W. Dardess offers a thematically organized political, social, and economic exploration of China from 1368 to 1644. He examines how the Ming dynasty was able to endure for 276 years, illuminating Ming foreign relations and border control, the lives and careers of its sixteen emperors, its system of governance and the kinds of people who served it, its great class of literati, and finally the mass outlawry that, in unhappy conjunction with the Manchu invasions from outside, ended the once-mighty dynasty in the mid-seventeenth century. The Ming witnessed the beginning of China's contact with the West, and its story will fascinate all readers interested in global as well as Asian history.

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1

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Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521243322
Total Pages : 1004 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (433 download)

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Book Synopsis The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1 by : Frederick W. Mote

Download or read book The Cambridge History of China: Volume 7, The Ming Dynasty, 1368-1644, Part 1 written by Frederick W. Mote and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 1988-02-26 with total page 1004 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume in the authoritative Cambridge History of China is devoted to the history of the Ming dynasty, with some account of the three decades before the dynasty's formal establishment, and of the Ming Courts, which survived in South China for a generation after 1644. Volume 7 deals primarily with political developments of the period, but it also incorporates background in social, economic, and cultural history where this is relevant to the course of events. The Ming period is the only segment of later imperial history during which all of China proper was ruled by a native, or Han dynasty. The success of the Chinese in regaining control over their own government is an important event in history, and the Ming dynasty thus has been regarded, both in Ming times and even more so in this century, as an era of Chinese resurgence. The volume provides the largest and most detailed account of the Ming period in any language. Summarizing all modern research in Chinese, Japanese, and Western languages, the authors have gone far beyond a summary of the state of the field, but have incorporated original research on subjects that have never before been described in detail. Volume 7 will be followed by a topical volume of Ming history (Volume 8) that will offer detailed studies of institutional changes, international relations, social and economic history, and the history of ideas and of religion.

China

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Author :
Publisher : M.E. Sharpe
ISBN 13 : 9780765631459
Total Pages : 378 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (314 download)

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Book Synopsis China by : Ray Huang

Download or read book China written by Ray Huang and published by M.E. Sharpe. This book was released on 1997-01-21 with total page 378 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This short history of China includes a new preface, additional illustrations and a more reader-friendly format.

History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811589631
Total Pages : 794 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (115 download)

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Book Synopsis History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty by : Xuezhi Zhang

Download or read book History of Chinese Philosophy in the Ming Dynasty written by Xuezhi Zhang and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-04-26 with total page 794 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book starts with the classification of the main views of different thinkers after the study of the original materials, which covers all the thinkers’ thoughts and conceptions. A major objective of this book is to reveal the ideas of the philosophers. Key ideological opinions are stated with the former discussion of exact questions and further clarification of their philosophical meaning, which enables the readers to better understand the meaning and value of the philosophical thoughts. Since the logic and history are in accordance with each other, a frame of conception is formed then. Then, the author clearly explains the logical relationship in the frame mentioned before, as well as the formation of the key concepts and their relationship.

Self and Society in Ming Thought

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (278 download)

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Book Synopsis Self and Society in Ming Thought by : Wm. Theodore De Bary

Download or read book Self and Society in Ming Thought written by Wm. Theodore De Bary and published by . This book was released on 1970 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Military History of the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Military History of the Ming Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book Military History of the Ming Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “Military History of the Ming Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521243339
Total Pages : 1231 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (433 download)

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Book Synopsis The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty by : Denis C. Twitchett

Download or read book The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty written by Denis C. Twitchett and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 1998-01-28 with total page 1231 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Volumes Seven and Eight of The Cambridge History of China are devoted to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), providing the largest and most detailed account in any language. Summarizing all modern research, Volume Eight offers detailed studies of governmental structure, the fiscal and legal systems, international relations, social and economic history, transportation networks, and the history of ideas and religion. Although written by specialists, these volumes intend to explain and describe the Ming period to general readers without a specialized knowledge of Chinese history, as well as scholars and students.

A History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811624909
Total Pages : 460 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (116 download)

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Book Synopsis A History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty by : Shuofang Xu

Download or read book A History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty written by Shuofang Xu and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-01-22 with total page 460 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book explores poems, novels, legends, operas and other genres of writing from the Ming Dynasty. It is composed of two parts: the literary history; and comprehensive reference materials based on the compilation of several chronologies. By studying individual literary works, the book analyzes the basic laws of the development of literature during the Ming Dynasty, and explores the influences of people, time, and place on literature from a sociological perspective. In turn, it conducts a contrastive analysis of Chinese and Western literature, based on similar works from the same literary genre and their creative methods. The book also investigates the relationship between literary theory and literary creation practices, including those used at various poetry schools. In closing, it studies the unique aesthetic traits of related works. Sharing valuable insights and perspectives, the book can serve as a role model for future literary history studies. It offers a unique resource for literary researchers, reference guide for students and educators, and lively read for members of the general public.

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Late Ch'ing 1800-1911

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Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521214476
Total Pages : 730 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (144 download)

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Book Synopsis The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Late Ch'ing 1800-1911 by : John K. Fairbank

Download or read book The Cambridge History of China: Volume 10, Late Ch'ing 1800-1911 written by John K. Fairbank and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 1978-06-05 with total page 730 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the first of two volumes in this major Cambridge history dealing with the decline of the Ch'ing empire. It opens with a survey of the Ch'ing empire in China and Inner Asia at its height, in about 1800. Contributors study the complex interplay of foreign invasion, domestic rebellion and Ch'ing decline and restoration. Special reference is made to the Peking administration, the Canton trade and the early treaty system, the Taiping, Nien and other rebellions, and the dynasty's survival in uneasy cooperation with the British, Russian, French, American and other invaders. Each chapter is written by a specialist from the international community of sinological scholars. No knowledge of Chinese is necessary; for readers with Chinese, proper names and terms are identified with their characters in the glossary, and full references to Chinese, Japanese and other works are given in the bibliographies. Numerous maps illustrate the text, and there are a bibliographical essays describing the source materials on which each author's account is based.

History of Science and Technology in the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis History of Science and Technology in the Ming Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book History of Science and Technology in the Ming Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “History of Science and Technology in the Ming Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “History of Literature in the Ming Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

Merchants, Market and Monarchy

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9783030771904
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (719 download)

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Book Synopsis Merchants, Market and Monarchy by : Tengda Hua

Download or read book Merchants, Market and Monarchy written by Tengda Hua and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This highly informative book reports how the ruling elite of scholars during the Ming Dynasty discussed the challenges of economic growth and international trade, and how they reflected on the logic of the system. --Bertram Schefold, Professor, Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany For Western-readers grappling with the complexity of China's economic history and economic thought Hua Tengda's book will prove an instructive guide. --Joseph P. McDermott, Emeritus Professor, University of Cambridge, UK This is a heroic effort to tackle the timeless and thorny issue of merchants in society ever since the dawn of Imperial China - the Han Period. --Kent Deng, Professor, London School of Economics, UK This book explores the vital role of merchants within early modern China. Unlike European merchants, their Sino-colleagues have long been regarded as certain social pariahs after pre-Qin period, despite the fortune they made. The key mission of this monograph is to investigate whether the standing of merchants in the Ming Empire has been improved compared with their predecessors. Generally, their status is reflected in state-merchant relationship and their role in the market, which can be found in miscellaneous economic activities such as market monopoly, commercial taxation, international trade, and consumption. This book aims to be of relevance to students and researchers interested in early modern history, eastern commerce, Ming merchants, and contemporary global affairs. Tengda Hua is Assistant Professor at Shanghai University of Political Science and Law. He obtained his Doctoral degree from Goethe University Frankfurt, Germany.

The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty

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Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9781139054768
Total Pages : 1231 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (547 download)

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Book Synopsis The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty by : Denis C. Twitchett

Download or read book The Cambridge History of China: Volume 8, The Ming Dynasty written by Denis C. Twitchett and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2008-03-28 with total page 1231 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Volumes Seven and Eight of The Cambridge History of China are devoted to the Ming dynasty (1368-1644), providing the largest and most detailed account in any language. Summarizing all modern research, Volume Eight offers detailed studies of governmental structure, the fiscal and legal systems, international relations, social and economic history, transportation networks, and the history of ideas and religion. Although written by specialists, these volumes intend to explain and describe the Ming period to general readers without a specialized knowledge of Chinese history, as well as scholars and students.

The History of Thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period

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Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The History of Thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period by : Li Shi

Download or read book The History of Thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “The History of Thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.