Foot and Ankle Pain Management

Download Foot and Ankle Pain Management PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ISBN 13 : 1975152611
Total Pages : 486 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (751 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Foot and Ankle Pain Management by : Rock G. Positano

Download or read book Foot and Ankle Pain Management written by Rock G. Positano and published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. This book was released on 2022-01-20 with total page 486 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Offering a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to a complex topic, Foot and Ankle Pain Management is a first-of-its-kind reference to this commonly presenting problem. Drs. Rock G. Positano, Neel Mehta, Andrew J. Rosenbaum, and Amitabh Gulati provide authoritative clinical guidance from areas of expertise in musculoskeletal podiatry, pain medicine, physiatry, and orthopaedic surgery. This first-line resource covers relevant anatomy, pain conditions, and treatments in a well-organized, easily referenced manner—offering a complete approach to care for foot and ankle specialists, pain medicine specialists, primary care physicians, pediatricians, and other clinicians who encounter patients with foot and ankle pain.

Foot and Ankle Pain Management

Download Foot and Ankle Pain Management PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781975152628
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (526 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Foot and Ankle Pain Management by : Rock G. Positano

Download or read book Foot and Ankle Pain Management written by Rock G. Positano and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Offering a comprehensive, multidisciplinary approach to a complex topic, Foot and Ankle Pain Management is a first-of-its-kind reference to this commonly presenting problem. Drs. Rock G. Positano, Neel Mehta, Andrew J. Rosenbaum, and Amitabh Gulati provide authoritative clinical guidance from areas of expertise in musculoskeletal podiatry, pain medicine, physiatry, and orthopaedic surgery. This first-line resource covers relevant anatomy, pain conditions, and treatments in a well-organized, easily referenced manner-offering a complete approach to care for foot and ankle specialists, pain medicine specialists, primary care physicians, pediatricians, and other clinicians who encounter patients with foot and ankle pain. Addresses common causes of foot and ankle pain including sports-related injury, diabetes, cancer (including treatment-induced pain), arthritis, neuropathy, infectious disease, and more. Covers the muscles, bones, and nervous system of relevant anatomy. Describes the epidemiology, pathology, and diagnosis of each pain condition, along with appropriate treatments. Includes a dedicated treatment section that covers the science and methodology of specific treatments in greater detail"--

The Ankle and Foot

Download The Ankle and Foot PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN 13 : 0323870392
Total Pages : 253 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (238 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Ankle and Foot by : Steven D. Waldman

Download or read book The Ankle and Foot written by Steven D. Waldman and published by Elsevier Health Sciences. This book was released on 2022-01-29 with total page 253 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Here is the perfect text you need to provide your learners with real-life clinical scenarios that are ideal for Case-Based Learning and Discussion. Presents real-world patients in a real-world clinical setting, making learning fun and engaging. The Case-Based Learning approach focuses learners and clinicians on the key elements for each diagnosis and helps develop a deep understanding of how to diagnose and treat each condition. Covers everyday clinical problems such as arthritis, deltoid ligament strain, Achilles tendinitis and tendon rupture, bunion and bunionette pain, plantar fasciitis, metatarsalgia, and more. Cases unfold just the way they do in your clinic. Each case is accompanied with thoughtful clinical commentary and key messages from the author. Each chapter uses high-quality radiographic images, clinical photos, and full-color drawings to facilitate a clear, easy-to-understand approach to evaluation and diagnosis. An ideal self-assessment and review tool for pain medicine practitioners and trainees, as well as those preparing for the American Board of Anesthesiology Pain Medicine certification and recertification exam.

The Ankle and Foot

Download The Ankle and Foot PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 9780323870382
Total Pages : 352 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (73 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Ankle and Foot by : Steven D. Waldman

Download or read book The Ankle and Foot written by Steven D. Waldman and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2022-08 with total page 352 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Here is the perfect text you need to provide your learners with real-life clinical scenarios that are ideal for Case-Based Learning and Discussion. · Presents real-world patients in a real-world clinical setting, making learning fun and engaging. · The Case-Based Learning approach focuses learners and clinicians on the key elements for each diagnosis and helps develop a deep understanding of how to diagnose and treat each condition. · Covers everyday clinical problems such as arthritis, deltoid ligament strain, Achilles tendinitis and tendon rupture, bunion and bunionette pain, plantar fasciitis, metatarsalgia, and more. · Cases unfold just the way they do in your clinic. Each case is accompanied with thoughtful clinical commentary and key messages from the author. · Each chapter uses high-quality radiographic images, clinical photos, and full-color drawings to facilitate a clear, easy-to-understand approach to evaluation and diagnosis. · An ideal self-assessment and review tool for pain medicine practitioners and trainees, as well as those preparing for the American Board of Anesthesiology Pain Medicine certification and recertification exam. § Enhanced eBook version included with purchase. Your enhanced eBook allows you to access all of the text, figures, and references from the book on a variety of devices.

Foot and Ankle Instability

Download Foot and Ankle Instability PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030629260
Total Pages : 285 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (36 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Foot and Ankle Instability by : Beat Hintermann

Download or read book Foot and Ankle Instability written by Beat Hintermann and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-01-04 with total page 285 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book comprehensively discusses the basic and practical aspects of foot and ankle surgery applied to all pathologies resulting from instabilities of these joints, a condition that remains underestimated. Uniquely, it not only addresses injuries to the lateral ankle ligaments, but also examines injuries to the deltoid-spring ligament complex, the syndesmotic and chopart joint ligaments, as well as peritalar instability – all pathologies that have often been neglected in the past. For each type of instability, it describes the anatomical basics and the biomechanical features, allowing readers to understand the injury pattern, the subsequent symptoms and clinical findings. Further, it offers guidance on selecting the most appropriate imaging tool for diagnosis and planning surgical reconstruction. Written by world-renowned pioneers in the field, and featuring a wealth of high-quality, intraoperative pictures, the book guides readers step-by-step through the latest, innovative technical surgical solutions for each condition. With its consistent structure, from the basics to the solution, its problem-oriented approach as well as its meticulously selected iconography, this book is a must-read for all orthopedic surgeons with an interest in foot and ankle surgery whishing to explore this promising field. Further, it is a valuable resource for residents, researchers and physiotherapists wishing to gain insights into foot and ankle instability and reconstructive surgery.

Manual of Fracture Management - Foot and Ankle

Download Manual of Fracture Management - Foot and Ankle PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Thieme
ISBN 13 : 313258276X
Total Pages : 1057 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (325 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Manual of Fracture Management - Foot and Ankle by : Stefan Rammelt

Download or read book Manual of Fracture Management - Foot and Ankle written by Stefan Rammelt and published by Thieme. This book was released on 2019-11-20 with total page 1057 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A practical, hands-on manual for surgeons of all levels on the management of foot and ankle trauma. The approaches are presented in a systematic, casebased format, ranging from simple to more complex cases. It provides step-by-step coverage of a wide range of basic to advanced techniques and procedures for the management of fractures, dislocations and soft tissue injuries of the foot and ankle. While a single case can be approached in a variety of ways, this book seeks to provide important guidelines which apply to most situations that may arise in foot and ankle injuries. It will be of value to anyone providing care for foot and ankle injuries. This book focuses on: General considerations in foot and ankle surgery Clinical and radiographic evaluation Decision-making and options for nonoperative treatment Preoperative planning Surgical approaches Avoiding pitfalls Managing risks and complications Alternative techniques Postoperative rehabilitation Key features include: Contributions from 48 surgeons from 14 countries 59 detailed cases covering a comprehensive range of foot and ankle injuries More than 1,650 high-quality illustrations and images

FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY: BLOCKING OR KNOCKING IT? PERIOPERATIVE PAIN MANAGEMENT REVIEW FOR FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY IN A TEACHING HOSPITAL

Download FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY: BLOCKING OR KNOCKING IT? PERIOPERATIVE PAIN MANAGEMENT REVIEW FOR FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY IN A TEACHING HOSPITAL PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (116 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY: BLOCKING OR KNOCKING IT? PERIOPERATIVE PAIN MANAGEMENT REVIEW FOR FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY IN A TEACHING HOSPITAL by : William Scott

Download or read book FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY: BLOCKING OR KNOCKING IT? PERIOPERATIVE PAIN MANAGEMENT REVIEW FOR FOOT AND ANKLE SURGERY IN A TEACHING HOSPITAL written by William Scott and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Foot and ankle surgery: blocking or knocking it?Perioperative pain management review for foot and ankle surgery in teaching hospitalBackground and AimsPain is a well recognised complication after foot and ankle surgery (FAS) [1]. Regional anaesthesia (RA) can be used to improve patient satisfaction and minimise inpatient stay [2]. We have evaluated the efficacy of RA in post-operative pain management of patients undergoing elective FAS in a busy teaching hospital over a 12 month period. Focus was on recovery, 24h and breakthrough opioid requirements. The aim is availability of effective RA to all patients undergoing FAS.MethodsRetrospective electronic chart review of patients undergoing elective FAS in a large teaching hospital. Ethical approval was not required for service evaluation project.Results98 patients were included in the study period (63% were female and 37% male). 52% were on chronic pain medications (neuropathic or long acting opioids) pre-operatively. 88% received RA for intra- and post-operative pain control. Patients were more likely to require opioids in recovery if RA was provided by a non-RA specialist (52% v 30% - chart 2). Those patients who did not receive RA were more likely to require breakthrough opioids in the first 24 hours than those who received RA (43% v 32%).ConclusionsRA was performed in 88% of cases. Where it was not used, it was largely due to patient preference or surgical factors. Use of RA by an RA-specialist minimised recovery opioid requirements. The primary indicator of 24h opioid requirements was mainly dependent on surgical procedure. In conclusion, elective FAS lists should be covered by an RA specialist to deliver optimum service.

McGlamry's Foot and Ankle Surgery

Download McGlamry's Foot and Ankle Surgery PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ISBN 13 : 197513608X
Total Pages : 5242 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (751 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis McGlamry's Foot and Ankle Surgery by : Brian Carpenter

Download or read book McGlamry's Foot and Ankle Surgery written by Brian Carpenter and published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. This book was released on 2021-05-21 with total page 5242 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Newly reorganized and streamlined, the fifth edition of McGlamry’s Foot and Ankle Surgery remains the definitive text for today’s podiatrist, foot and ankle surgeon, resident, or student, whether for everyday reference or preparing for certification exams. All clinical chapters have been formatted for ease of use, with clearly written, highly illustrated coverage of traditional as well as new and emerging techniques. Covering topics from perioperative management to postoperative complications, this must-have reference helps you master the full range of foot and ankle surgeries and procedures.

Targeted Muscle Reinnervation

Download Targeted Muscle Reinnervation PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1439860815
Total Pages : 225 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (398 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Targeted Muscle Reinnervation by : Todd A. Kuiken

Download or read book Targeted Muscle Reinnervation written by Todd A. Kuiken and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2013-07-23 with total page 225 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Implement TMR with Your Patients and Improve Their Quality of Life Developed by Dr. Todd A. Kuiken and Dr. Gregory A. Dumanian, targeted muscle reinnervation (TMR) is a new approach to accessing motor control signals from peripheral nerves after amputation and providing sensory feedback to prosthesis users. This practical approach has many advantages over other neural-machine interfaces for the improved control of artificial limbs. Targeted Muscle Reinnervation: A Neural Interface for Artificial Limbs provides a template for the clinical implementation of TMR and a resource for further research in this new area of science. After describing the basic scientific concepts and key principles underlying TMR, the book presents surgical approaches to transhumeral and shoulder disarticulation amputations. It explores the possible role of TMR in the prevention and treatment of end-neuromas and details the principles of rehabilitation, prosthetic fitting, and occupational therapy for TMR patients. The book also describes transfer sensation and discusses the surgical and functional outcomes of the first several TMR patients. It concludes with emerging research on using TMR to further improve the function and quality of life for people with limb loss. With contributions from renowned leaders in the field, including Drs. Kuiken and Dumanian, this book is a useful guide to implementing TMR in patients with high-level upper limb amputations. It also supplies the foundation to enable improvements in TMR techniques and advances in prosthetic technology.

Foot and Ankle Surgery

Download Foot and Ankle Surgery PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Thieme
ISBN 13 : 1626234922
Total Pages : 1114 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (262 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Foot and Ankle Surgery by : Steven M. Raikin

Download or read book Foot and Ankle Surgery written by Steven M. Raikin and published by Thieme. This book was released on 2018-03-10 with total page 1114 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A concise, insightful guide to foot and ankle surgeries from master orthopaedic foot and ankle surgeon Steven Raikin Foot and ankle problems such as injuries, arthritis, congenital and acquired deformities, tendenopathies, heel pain, and nerve damage account for a large percentage of orthopaedic conditions. A better understanding of the biomechanics of the foot and ankle and improved outcome research have led to considerable advances in foot surgery techniques, superior results, and improved functional outcomes. Foot and Ankle Surgery: Tricks of the Trade by renowned foot and ankle specialist Steven Raikin and experts from 12 countries, presents step-by-step guidance on the latest foot and ankle surgery procedures. Each succinct, consistently organized chapter takes the reader from patient assessment, diagnostic evaluations and patient selection to surgical planning and positioning, the procedure itself, how to handle complications, postoperative management, and the authors' pearls and surgical tips. The book is divided into forefoot, midfoot, hindfoot, nerve, and ankle pathologies, encompassing commonly performed reconstructive and traumatic procedures. Different techniques are discussed for similar pathologies, such as open and arthroscopic lateral ankle ligament reconstruction, and augmentation options utilizing tendon allograft or an internal brace. Key Features Discussion of six different total ankle replacement systems, many written by designers of the systems themselves, affords unique insights A full spectrum of techniques to correct plantar plate tears, hallux valgus, tarsal tunnel syndrome, drop-foot, midfoot arthritis and deformity, tibial tendon dysfunction, Achilles rupture, osteochondral lesions of the talus, ankle fractures, and more Tricks and pearls for optimizing procedural performance, managing hazards and pitfalls, and preventing or resolving intraoperative complications A mix of 500 high quality artist illustrations and intraoperative photographs delineate anatomy and procedures This highly practical book provides a robust teaching tool for orthopaedic procedures of the foot and ankle. Orthopaedic residents, foot and ankle surgeons, and podiatrists will benefit from clinical pearls and tips from top experts who made major significant contributions to this subspecialty.

Simple Steps to Foot Pain Relief

Download Simple Steps to Foot Pain Relief PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : BenBella Books, Inc.
ISBN 13 : 1942952910
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (429 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Simple Steps to Foot Pain Relief by : Katy Bowman

Download or read book Simple Steps to Foot Pain Relief written by Katy Bowman and published by BenBella Books, Inc.. This book was released on 2016-09-06 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Don't just treat your foot pain—strengthen your feet to prevent it. Back with an expanded edition of her popular book Every Woman's Guide to Foot Pain Relief, biomechanist Katy Bowman has created a new version for both men and women in all walks of life. With updated material and new visuals that illustrate exactly how to strengthen and mobilize your feet, Simple Steps to Foot Pain Relief will show you how to change the way you move your body to prevent pain, heal your feet, and halt damage to the rest of your body. Bowman's simple, accessible, innovative program will help you naturally address lower-leg and foot issues such as: - Hammertoes - Bunions - Plantar fasciitis - Poor posture and alignment Bowman walks you gently through exercises to strengthen your feet, what shoes you should (and should not) be wearing, and how these choices affect your overall foot—and whole-body!—health. Simple Steps to Foot Pain Relief will teach you how healthy feet work optimally and help you put your best foot forward on the path toward moving with greater ease.

Foot and Ankle Trauma

Download Foot and Ankle Trauma PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 920 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Foot and Ankle Trauma by : Barry L. Scurran

Download or read book Foot and Ankle Trauma written by Barry L. Scurran and published by . This book was released on 1996 with total page 920 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive text that addresses the multitude of foot and ankle injuries and their appropriate management, for family practitioners, emergency physicians, other interested clinicians, and students. This revised and updated edition retains the five basic sections (32 chapters) from the first edition of 1989: general concepts; soft tissue and related trauma; fractures and dislocations; ankle trauma; and complications. Thoroughly illustrated in bandw. Annotation copyright by Book News, Inc., Portland, OR

Lateral Ankle Instability

Download Lateral Ankle Instability PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3662627639
Total Pages : 392 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (626 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Lateral Ankle Instability by : Hélder Pereira

Download or read book Lateral Ankle Instability written by Hélder Pereira and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-04-28 with total page 392 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This superbly illustrated, up-to-date reference textbook covers all aspects of ankle instability and its management. Readers will find extensive information on biomechanics, injury prevention, current strategies for conservative treatment, and established and emerging surgical techniques. The most recent procedures, particularly those which are minimally invasive and arthroscopically assisted, are described and discussed in depth. Detailed attention is also devoted to controversies such as the indications and timing for conservative or surgical treatment, the current and future roles of arthroscopy, the definition of “anatomic” repair, and the upcoming concept of “anatomic reconstruction” (replication of anatomy by using a graft). The book is published in cooperation with ESSKA, and the chapter authors include clinicians and scientists working in the field of foot and ankle orthopaedics and sports medicine from across the world. All who are involved in the care of patients suffering from ankle instability, including amateur and high-level athletes, will find Lateral Ankle Instability to be an excellent source of knowledge and a valuable aid to clinical practice.

McGlamry's Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery

Download McGlamry's Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Lippincott Williams & Wilkins
ISBN 13 : 1469817519
Total Pages : 5382 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (698 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis McGlamry's Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery by : The Podiatry Institute

Download or read book McGlamry's Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery written by The Podiatry Institute and published by Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. This book was released on 2012-10-31 with total page 5382 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The definitive text in its field, McGlamry's Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery, is the ideal reference for the podiatric or orthopedic surgeon, resident, or student preparing for certification exams. From perioperative management to postoperative complications and considerations, this must-have resource prepares you for a full range of podiatric surgeries and procedures ranging from routine trauma of the foot and leg to compound deformities, enabling you to face any challenge with confidence. This is the tablet version of McGlamry's Comprehensive Textbook of Foot and Ankle Surgery which does not include access to the supplemental content mentioned in the text.

Trigger Point Therapy for Foot, Ankle, Knee, and Leg Pain

Download Trigger Point Therapy for Foot, Ankle, Knee, and Leg Pain PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781572248427
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (484 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Trigger Point Therapy for Foot, Ankle, Knee, and Leg Pain by : Valerie DeLaune

Download or read book Trigger Point Therapy for Foot, Ankle, Knee, and Leg Pain written by Valerie DeLaune and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Licensed acupuncturist, certified massage therapist, and trigger point specialist Valerie DeLaune presents Trigger Point Therapy for Foot, Ankle, Knee, and Leg Pain, the first book to offer trigger point therapy techniques specifically for these types of pain. This book features step-by-step home treatment plans for an array of musculoskeletal conditions, including bunions, hammertoes, ankle pain, Achilles tendonitis, restless leg syndrome, and more.

Practical Pain Management for the Lower Extremity Surgeon

Download Practical Pain Management for the Lower Extremity Surgeon PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781574001518
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (15 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Practical Pain Management for the Lower Extremity Surgeon by : Stephen L. Barrett

Download or read book Practical Pain Management for the Lower Extremity Surgeon written by Stephen L. Barrett and published by . This book was released on 2015-10-01 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This long-awaited textbook addresses the treatment and management of complex lower extremity pain, which can prove difficult to treat, given the demands of human ambulation. Lower extremity pain is oftentimes under-treated but can be obviated in many cases by improving the delivery of effective care. To fill a notable void in the field of pain management, Dr. Barrett and his co-authors assess and provide insight on the most current ideas, concepts, and techniques that the lower extremity surgeon, or practitioner, may integrate into their practice. Clinical acumen and knowledge can be extremely empowering to the provider and, as the reader will discover, the expertise imparted throughout this text will prove to be indispensable in improving patient care and outcomes.

Case Studies in Pain Management

Download Case Studies in Pain Management PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1107682894
Total Pages : 547 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (76 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Case Studies in Pain Management by : Alan David Kaye

Download or read book Case Studies in Pain Management written by Alan David Kaye and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2014-10-16 with total page 547 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Edited by internationally recognized pain experts, this book offers 73 clinically relevant cases, accompanied by discussion in a question-and-answer format.