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Examining Barriers To Electric Vehicle Adoption Using Vehicle And Charging Infrastructure Data Owenership Cost Analysis And Electrical Grid Demand And Environmental Impact Analyses
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Book Synopsis Examining Barriers to Electric Vehicle Adoption Using Vehicle and Charging Infrastructure Data, Owenership Cost Analysis, and Electrical Grid Demand and Environmental Impact Analyses by : Peter Weldon
Download or read book Examining Barriers to Electric Vehicle Adoption Using Vehicle and Charging Infrastructure Data, Owenership Cost Analysis, and Electrical Grid Demand and Environmental Impact Analyses written by Peter Weldon and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Overcoming Barriers to Electric-Vehicle Deployment by : National Research Council
Download or read book Overcoming Barriers to Electric-Vehicle Deployment written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2013-06-18 with total page 102 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The electric vehicle offers many promises-increasing U.S. energy security by reducing petroleum dependence, contributing to climate-change initiatives by decreasing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, stimulating long-term economic growth through the development of new technologies and industries, and improving public health by improving local air quality. There are, however, substantial technical, social, and economic barriers to widespread adoption of electric vehicles, including vehicle cost, small driving range, long charging times, and the need for a charging infrastructure. In addition, people are unfamiliar with electric vehicles, are uncertain about their costs and benefits, and have diverse needs that current electric vehicles might not meet. Although a person might derive some personal benefits from ownership, the costs of achieving the social benefits, such as reduced GHG emissions, are borne largely by the people who purchase the vehicles. Given the recognized barriers to electric-vehicle adoption, Congress asked the Department of Energy (DOE) to commission a study by the National Academies to address market barriers that are slowing the purchase of electric vehicles and hindering the deployment of supporting infrastructure. As a result of the request, the National Research Council (NRC)-a part of the National Academies-appointed the Committee on Overcoming Barriers to Electric-Vehicle Deployment. This committee documented their findings in two reports-a short interim report focused on near-term options, and a final comprehensive report. Overcoming Barriers to Electric-Vehicle Deployment fulfills the request for the short interim report that addresses specifically the following issues: infrastructure needs for electric vehicles, barriers to deploying the infrastructure, and possible roles of the federal government in overcoming the barriers. This report also includes an initial discussion of the pros and cons of the possible roles. This interim report does not address the committee's full statement of task and does not offer any recommendations because the committee is still in its early stages of data-gathering. The committee will continue to gather and review information and conduct analyses through late spring 2014 and will issue its final report in late summer 2014. Overcoming Barriers to Electric-Vehicle Deployment focuses on the light-duty vehicle sector in the United States and restricts its discussion of electric vehicles to plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs), which include battery electric vehicles (BEVs) and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). The common feature of these vehicles is that their batteries are charged by being plugged into the electric grid. BEVs differ from PHEVs because they operate solely on electricity stored in a battery (that is, there is no other power source); PHEVs have internal combustion engines that can supplement the electric power train. Although this report considers PEVs generally, the committee recognizes that there are fundamental differences between PHEVs and BEVs.
Book Synopsis An Assessment of the System Costs and Operational Benefits of Vehicle-to-grid Schemes by : Chioke Bem Harris
Download or read book An Assessment of the System Costs and Operational Benefits of Vehicle-to-grid Schemes written by Chioke Bem Harris and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 384 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With the emerging nationwide availability of plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) at prices attainable for many consumers, electric utilities, system operators, and researchers have been investigating the impact of this new source of electricity demand. The presence of PEVs on the electric grid might offer benefits equivalent to dedicated utility-scale energy storage systems by leveraging vehicles' grid-connected energy storage through vehicle-to-grid (V2G) enabled infrastructure. Existing research, however, has not effectively examined the interactions between PEVs and the electric grid in a V2G system. To address these shortcomings in the literature, longitudinal vehicle travel data are first used to identify patterns in vehicle use. This analysis showed that vehicle use patterns are distinctly different between weekends and weekdays, seasonal interactions between vehicle charging, electric load, and wind generation might be important, and that vehicle charging might increase already high peak summer electric load in Texas. Subsequent simulations of PEV charging were performed, which revealed that unscheduled charging would increase summer peak load in Texas by approximately 1\%, and that uncertainty that arises from unscheduled charging would require only limited increases in frequency regulation procurements. To assess the market potential for the implementation of a V2G system that provides frequency regulation ancillary services, and might be able to provide financial incentives to participating PEV owners, a two-stage stochastic programming formulation of a V2G system operator was created. In addition to assessing the market potential for a V2G system, the model was also designed to determine the effect of the market power of the V2G system operator on prices for frequency regulation, the effect of uncertainty in real-time vehicle availability and state-of-charge on the aggregator's ability to provide regulation services, and the effect of different vehicle characteristics on revenues. Results from this model showed that the V2G system operator could generate revenue from participation in the frequency regulation market in Texas, even when subject to the uncertainty in real-time vehicle use. The model also showed that the V2G system operator would have a significant impact on prices, and thus as the number of PEVs participating in a V2G program in a given region increased, per-vehicle revenues, and thus compensation provided to vehicle owners, would decline dramatically. From these estimated payments to PEV owners, the decision to participate in a V2G program was analyzed. The balance between the estimated payments to PEV owners for participating in a V2G program and the increased probability of being left with a depleted battery as a result of V2G operations indicate that an owner of a range-limited battery electric vehicle (BEV) would probably not be a viable candidate for joining a V2G program, while a plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV) owner might find a V2G program worthwhile. Even for a PHEV owner, however, compensation for participating in a V2G program will provide limited incentive to join.
Book Synopsis Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels by : National Research Council
Download or read book Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2013-04-14 with total page 395 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For a century, almost all light-duty vehicles (LDVs) have been powered by internal combustion engines operating on petroleum fuels. Energy security concerns about petroleum imports and the effect of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions on global climate are driving interest in alternatives. Transitions to Alternative Vehicles and Fuels assesses the potential for reducing petroleum consumption and GHG emissions by 80 percent across the U.S. LDV fleet by 2050, relative to 2005. This report examines the current capability and estimated future performance and costs for each vehicle type and non-petroleum-based fuel technology as options that could significantly contribute to these goals. By analyzing scenarios that combine various fuel and vehicle pathways, the report also identifies barriers to implementation of these technologies and suggests policies to achieve the desired reductions. Several scenarios are promising, but strong, and effective policies such as research and development, subsidies, energy taxes, or regulations will be necessary to overcome barriers, such as cost and consumer choice.
Book Synopsis Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-in Electric Vehicles by : National Research Council
Download or read book Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-in Electric Vehicles written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2015-06-26 with total page 231 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the past few years, interest in plug-in electric vehicles (PEVs) has grown. Advances in battery and other technologies, new federal standards for carbon-dioxide emissions and fuel economy, state zero-emission-vehicle requirements, and the current administration's goal of putting millions of alternative-fuel vehicles on the road have all highlighted PEVs as a transportation alternative. Consumers are also beginning to recognize the advantages of PEVs over conventional vehicles, such as lower operating costs, smoother operation, and better acceleration; the ability to fuel up at home; and zero tailpipe emissions when the vehicle operates solely on its battery. There are, however, barriers to PEV deployment, including the vehicle cost, the short all-electric driving range, the long battery charging time, uncertainties about battery life, the few choices of vehicle models, and the need for a charging infrastructure to support PEVs. What should industry do to improve the performance of PEVs and make them more attractive to consumers? At the request of Congress, Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-in Electric Vehicles identifies barriers to the introduction of electric vehicles and recommends ways to mitigate these barriers. This report examines the characteristics and capabilities of electric vehicle technologies, such as cost, performance, range, safety, and durability, and assesses how these factors might create barriers to widespread deployment. Overcoming Barriers to Deployment of Plug-in Electric Vehicles provides an overview of the current status of PEVs and makes recommendations to spur the industry and increase the attractiveness of this promising technology for consumers. Through consideration of consumer behaviors, tax incentives, business models, incentive programs, and infrastructure needs, this book studies the state of the industry and makes recommendations to further its development and acceptance.
Book Synopsis Data Driven Analysis of an EV Charging Station on the US Interstate Highway System by : Anders Stenstadvolden
Download or read book Data Driven Analysis of an EV Charging Station on the US Interstate Highway System written by Anders Stenstadvolden and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Proper charging infrastructure is crucial for the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) around the world. However, one of the greatest challenges faced by EVs is their limited range in comparison to gasoline vehicles, which makes long distance travel unfeasible. To address this issue, the National Electric Vehicle Infrastructure (NEVI) Formula Program in the United States plans to invest heavily in a national EV charging station network along the U.S. Interstate Highway System. However, the increased number of EV charging stations will significantly impact the power grid and create various challenges. Despite limited research on the power demand of EV charging stations along interstates, partnering with a local power utility company and signing a non-disclosure agreement (NDA) provided access to actual smart meter data from a level-3 EV charging station. This thesis analyzes the power charging demand, trends, and behaviors of a level3 EV charging station along an interstate using real 15-minute smart meter data. Additionally, the sustainability of the level-3 EV charging station is assessed using photovoltaic generation, and the seasonal impact on EV traffic density is analyzed. The analysis of the EV charging station resulted in the following: the demand is both seasonal and time dependent, solar PV has potential to make the EV charging station sustainable, and that even with an increase in demand from year to year, the charging behaviors are similar especially in the summer months. This thesis presents a general methodology to analyze EV charging stations using real power demand data that can benefit researchers, power professionals, and power utility companies. The insights gained from this analysis will aid in understanding the potential impacts of EV charging stations on the power grid and assist in the planning and implementation of future EV charging infrastructures.
Book Synopsis Generalized Additive Models by : Simon Wood
Download or read book Generalized Additive Models written by Simon Wood and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2006-02-27 with total page 412 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Now in widespread use, generalized additive models (GAMs) have evolved into a standard statistical methodology of considerable flexibility. While Hastie and Tibshirani's outstanding 1990 research monograph on GAMs is largely responsible for this, there has been a long-standing need for an accessible introductory treatment of the subject that also emphasizes recent penalized regression spline approaches to GAMs and the mixed model extensions of these models. Generalized Additive Models: An Introduction with R imparts a thorough understanding of the theory and practical applications of GAMs and related advanced models, enabling informed use of these very flexible tools. The author bases his approach on a framework of penalized regression splines, and builds a well-grounded foundation through motivating chapters on linear and generalized linear models. While firmly focused on the practical aspects of GAMs, discussions include fairly full explanations of the theory underlying the methods. Use of the freely available R software helps explain the theory and illustrates the practicalities of linear, generalized linear, and generalized additive models, as well as their mixed effect extensions. The treatment is rich with practical examples, and it includes an entire chapter on the analysis of real data sets using R and the author's add-on package mgcv. Each chapter includes exercises, for which complete solutions are provided in an appendix. Concise, comprehensive, and essentially self-contained, Generalized Additive Models: An Introduction with R prepares readers with the practical skills and the theoretical background needed to use and understand GAMs and to move on to other GAM-related methods and models, such as SS-ANOVA, P-splines, backfitting and Bayesian approaches to smoothing and additive modelling.
Book Synopsis Electric Vehicle Charging and the California Power Sector by : Julia Meagher Sohnen
Download or read book Electric Vehicle Charging and the California Power Sector written by Julia Meagher Sohnen and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This thesis explores the implications of the increased adoption of plug-in electric vehicles in California through its effect on the operation of the state's electric grid. The well-to-wheels emissions associated with driving an electric vehicle depend on the resource mix of the electricity grid used to charge the battery. We present a new least-cost dispatch model, EDGE-NET, for the California electricity grid consisting of interconnected sub-regions that encompass the six largest state utilities that can be used to evaluate the impact of growing electric vehicle demand on existing power grid infrastructure system and energy resources. This model considers spatiality and temporal dynamics of energy demand and supply when determining the regional impacts of additional charging profiles on the current electricity network. Model simulation runs for one year show generation and transmission congestion to be reasonable similar to historical data. Model simulation results show that average emissions and system costs associated with electricity generation vary significantly by time of day, season, and location. Marginal cost and emissions also exhibit seasonal and diurnal differences, but show less spatial variation. Sensitivity of demand analysis shows that the relative changes to average emissions and system costs respond asymmetrically to increases and decreases in electricity demand. These results depend on grid mix at the time and the marginal power plant type.In minimizing total system cost, the model will choose to dispatch the lowest-cost resource to meet additional vehicle demand, regardless of location, as long as transmission capacity is available. Location of electric vehicle charging has a small effect on the marginal greenhouse gas emissions associated with additional generation, due to electricity losses in the transmission grid. We use a geographically explicit, charging assessment model for California to develop and compare the effects of two charging profiles. Comparison of these two basic scenarios points to savings in greenhouse gas emissions savings and operational costs from delayed charging of electric vehicles. Vehicle charging simulations confirm that plug-in electric vehicles alone are unlikely to require additional generation or transmission infrastructure. EDGE-NET was successfully benchmarked against historical data for the present grid but additional work is required to expand the model for future scenario evaluation. We discuss how the model might be adapted for high penetrations of variable renewable energy resources, and the use of grid storage. Renewable resources such as wind and solar vary in California vary significantly by time-of-day, season, and location. However, combination of multiple resources from different geographic regions through transmission grid interconnection is expected to help mitigate the impacts of variability. EDGE-NET can evaluate interaction of supply and demand through the existing transmission infrastructure and can identify any critical network bottlenecks or areas for expansion. For this reason, EDGE-NET will be an important tool to evaluate energy policy scenarios.
Book Synopsis Influencing Factors for Light Duty Electric Vehicle Adoption and Anticipated Impacts on the Electric Reliability Council of Texas by : Kelsey Marie Nelson
Download or read book Influencing Factors for Light Duty Electric Vehicle Adoption and Anticipated Impacts on the Electric Reliability Council of Texas written by Kelsey Marie Nelson and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming a more prominent portion of Texas’s light duty vehicle (LDV) fleet as they become more attractive to consumers and as relevant governing bodies work to incentivize further adoption rates in an effort to reduce emissions within the transportation industry. Meanwhile, the Electric Reliability Council of Texas (ERCOT), the electric grid that services about 90% of the state’s residents, has been seeing increases in power demand. This has been due to factors such as a growing population, increased air conditioning use, and pushes for electrification across other industries, all factors that are expected to continue contributing to power demand increases within the foreseeable future. As more vehicles in the state are electrified, they will add further power demand increases on top of the existing contributing factors. This work focuses on evaluating different EV adoption, charging management, and policy scenarios in order to then evaluate how they may be expected to impact ERCOT, particularly regarding peak demand increase within two time horizons: one into 2030 and one into 2050. Peak demand is an important consideration because as it increases, it presents challenges for maintaining the electrical grid’s reliability when it exceeds generation capacity. After constructing and refining models which predict EV presence at the county level based on socio-economic and infrastructure related feature variables, the anticipated impacts of a growing EV fleet are quantified using historical data from ERCOT, planned installations and reserve margins, EV charging patterns, and travel patterns. Additionally, this work includes results from a collaboration which culminated in applying relevant EV fleet growth predictions to a DC-OPF simulation for Austin Energy, serving as a case study for the future of EV fleet impacts on relatively small-scale utilities. The results of this study showcase the fact that it is possible to accurately predict EV presence at the county level with 6 publicly available feature variables. In examining adoption pathways, it importantly finds that current incentives will very likely be insufficient for the achievement of the Biden Administration’s 50% market share goal by 2030. Should this market share goal come to fruition, however, it is expected to be manageable at the state level and within the Austin Energy case study regarding electricity supply in 2030. Sustained growth from this scenario, however, will necessitate ambitious charging management strategies in order to limit the potentially heavy impact of a growing EV fleet on peak demand looking forward into and beyond 2050
Book Synopsis Examining the Effects of Policy Interventions on Increasing Electric Vehicle Adoption in California by : Ethan G McDermott
Download or read book Examining the Effects of Policy Interventions on Increasing Electric Vehicle Adoption in California written by Ethan G McDermott and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Any significant effort to reduce global emissions of greenhouse gasses must address the growing concern of the transportation sector's inability to meaningfully reduce its emissions contribution. A major shift in the primary fuel used in the sector away from petroleum-based fuel to electricity is one potential way the sector can lower its emissions and transition into a sustainable future. However, a number of barriers face the electric vehicle market, including competing against an already mature vehicle market, battling consumer preferences, and overcoming technical challenges. This paper examines several policy proposals to combat these barriers and examines the impact similar policies could have on the electric vehicle market in California. California is chosen because of its historical leadership in environmental causes, and for exhibiting cultural values that are in line with increasing the adoption of electric vehicles. It is found that policies that affect the purchase price of the vehicle, and improve access to charging infrastructure are most effective in increasing the number of sales, but that policies aimed at signaling a longstanding commitment to the success of the EV market and reduce GHG emissions are a greater indicator of whether there is sustained growth in the EV market. Recommendations are given based on California's current policy package to strengthen the current EV market, and transition into a self-sustaining market without the need for government intervention.
Book Synopsis Integration Challenges for Fast-charging Infrastructure to Support Electric Vehicle Adoption by : Andrew Maxwell Mowry
Download or read book Integration Challenges for Fast-charging Infrastructure to Support Electric Vehicle Adoption written by Andrew Maxwell Mowry and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 70 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Highway fast-charging stations located between major population centers are necessary to address consumer charging concerns and thus to support the continued adoption of electric vehicles to meet decarbonization policy targets. Yet such stations, if sized to support anticipated demand, may cause operational difficulties on the power grid. Using a spatially resolved model of the power transmission network and a detailed market simulator, we characterize the effects of large-scale EV fast-charging on the Texas ERCOT system. We further explore three strategies to mitigate these effects -- energy storage colocation, network reinforcement, and demand flexibility -- and quantify their costs. This analysis is unique in its focus on highway fast-charging, in its nodal representation of the power grid, and in its measurement of transmission-level impacts. We find that highway fast-charging stations do have the potential to cause transmissionlevel impacts, especially by exacerbating local transmission constraints. Inter-zonal transfer constraints and increased costs due to the dispatching of more expensive generation also contribute to system costs. We develop a general method to identify the most impactful charging stations, but we find that the determination of cost-effective mitigation strategies for each station requires a more tailored approach. Our analysis indicates that transmission reinforcement and battery co-location are relatively competitive mitigation strategies, but that demand flexibility is not. When considering policies to promote fast-charger development, policymakers should focus on involving multiple stakeholders who can contribute different expertise to identify costefficient solutions. Specifically, we suggest a central role for power utilities due to their experience planning transmission reinforcement, but we also highlight an important role for private developers, especially in the United States, for political feasibility and overall cost controls.
Book Synopsis Modern Electric Vehicle Technology by : C. C. Chan
Download or read book Modern Electric Vehicle Technology written by C. C. Chan and published by OUP Oxford. This book was released on 2001 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A comprehensive and up-to-date reference book on modern electric vehicle technology, which covers the engineering philosophy, state-of-the-art technology, and commercialisation of electrical vehicles.
Download or read book Self-Congruity written by M. Joseph Sirgy and published by Praeger. This book was released on 1986-08-05 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Self-Congruity provides a comprehensive understanding of the self-concept, integrating the many references to it in the psychological literature. Using his previous findings, the author considers cognitive-versus-affective phenomena, and intrapersonal, interpersonal, situational, and analytic modes. He then applies his integrated theory to the problem of change in self-concept and behavior.
Book Synopsis Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance by : Richard Folkson
Download or read book Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance written by Richard Folkson and published by Woodhead Publishing. This book was released on 2022-07-27 with total page 800 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance: Towards Zero Carbon Transportation, Second Edition provides a comprehensive view of key developments in advanced fuels and vehicle technologies to improve the energy efficiency and environmental impact of the automotive sector. Sections consider the role of alternative fuels such as electricity, alcohol and hydrogen fuel cells, as well as advanced additives and oils in environmentally sustainable transport. Other topics explored include methods of revising engine and vehicle design to improve environmental performance and fuel economy and developments in electric and hybrid vehicle technologies. This reference will provide professionals, engineers and researchers of alternative fuels with an understanding of the latest clean technologies which will help them to advance the field. Those working in environmental and mechanical engineering will benefit from the detailed analysis of the technologies covered, as will fuel suppliers and energy producers seeking to improve the efficiency, sustainability and accessibility of their work. - Provides a fully updated reference with significant technological advances and developments in the sector - Presents analyses on the latest advances in electronic systems for emissions control, autonomous systems, artificial intelligence and legislative requirements - Includes a strong focus on updated climate change predictions and consequences, helping the reader work towards ambitious 2050 climate change goals for the automotive industry
Download or read book Highway Statistics written by and published by . This book was released on with total page 36 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Handbook on Battery Energy Storage System by : Asian Development Bank
Download or read book Handbook on Battery Energy Storage System written by Asian Development Bank and published by Asian Development Bank. This book was released on 2018-12-01 with total page 123 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This handbook serves as a guide to deploying battery energy storage technologies, specifically for distributed energy resources and flexibility resources. Battery energy storage technology is the most promising, rapidly developed technology as it provides higher efficiency and ease of control. With energy transition through decarbonization and decentralization, energy storage plays a significant role to enhance grid efficiency by alleviating volatility from demand and supply. Energy storage also contributes to the grid integration of renewable energy and promotion of microgrid.
Book Synopsis Electric Vehicle Technology Explained by : James Larminie
Download or read book Electric Vehicle Technology Explained written by James Larminie and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2012-07-11 with total page 342 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Fully updated throughout, Electric Vehicle Technology, Second Edition, is a complete guide to the principles, design and applications of electric vehicle technology. Including all the latest advances, it presents clear and comprehensive coverage of the major aspects of electric vehicle development and offers an engineering-based evaluation of electric motor scooters, cars, buses and trains. This new edition includes: important new chapters on types of electric vehicles, including pickup and linear motors, overall efficiencies and energy consumption, and power generation, particularly for zero carbon emissions expanded chapters updating the latest types of EV, types of batteries, battery technology and other rechargeable devices, fuel cells, hydrogen supply, controllers, EV modeling, ancillary system design, and EV and the environment brand new practical examples and case studies illustrating how electric vehicles can be used to substantially reduce carbon emissions and cut down reliance on fossil fuels futuristic concept models, electric and high-speed trains and developments in magnetic levitation and linear motors an examination of EV efficiencies, energy consumption and sustainable power generation. MATLAB® examples can be found on the companion website www.wiley.com/go/electricvehicle2e Explaining the underpinning science and technology, this book is essential for practicing electrical, automotive, power, control and instrumentation engineers working in EV research and development. It is also a valuable reference for academics and students in automotive, mechanical, power and electrical engineering.
