Creating The Black Utopia Of Buxton Iowa

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Creating the Black Utopia of Buxton, Iowa

Author : Rachelle D.Henry
Publisher : Arcadia Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1467140465
Total Pages : 176 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (671 download)

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Book Synopsis Creating the Black Utopia of Buxton, Iowa by : Rachelle D.Henry

Download or read book Creating the Black Utopia of Buxton, Iowa written by Rachelle D.Henry and published by Arcadia Publishing. This book was released on 2019 with total page 176 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Some have called Buxton a Black Utopia. In the town of five thousand residents, established in 1900, African Americans and Caucasians lived, worked and attended school together. It was a thriving, one-of-a-kind coal mining town created by the Consolidation Coal Company. This inclusive approach provided opportunity for its residents. Dr. E.A. Carter was the first African American to get a medical degree from the University of Iowa in 1907. He returned to Buxton and was hired by the coal company, where he treated both black and white patients. Attorney George Woodson ran for file clerk in the Iowa Senate for the Republican Party in 1898, losing to a white man by one vote. Author Rachelle Chase details the amazing events that created this unique community and what made it disappear.

Black Utopia

Author : Alex Zamalin
Publisher : Columbia University Press
ISBN 13 : 0231547250
Total Pages : 151 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (315 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Utopia by : Alex Zamalin

Download or read book Black Utopia written by Alex Zamalin and published by Columbia University Press. This book was released on 2019-08-20 with total page 151 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Within the history of African American struggle against racist oppression that often verges on dystopia, a hidden tradition has depicted a transfigured world. Daring to speculate on a future beyond white supremacy, black utopian artists and thinkers offer powerful visions of ways of being that are built on radical concepts of justice and freedom. They imagine a new black citizen who would inhabit a world that soars above all existing notions of the possible. In Black Utopia, Alex Zamalin offers a groundbreaking examination of African American visions of social transformation and their counterutopian counterparts. Considering figures associated with racial separatism, postracialism, anticolonialism, Pan-Africanism, and Afrofuturism, he argues that the black utopian tradition continues to challenge American political thought and culture. Black Utopia spans black nationalist visions of an ideal Africa, the fiction of W. E. B. Du Bois, and Sun Ra’s cosmic mythology of alien abduction. Zamalin casts Samuel R. Delany and Octavia E. Butler as political theorists and reflects on the antiutopian challenges of George S. Schuyler and Richard Wright. Their thought proves that utopianism, rather than being politically immature or dangerous, can invigorate political imagination. Both an inspiring intellectual history and a critique of present power relations, this book suggests that, with democracy under siege across the globe, the black utopian tradition may be our best hope for combating injustice.

Lost Buxton

Author : Rachelle Chase
Publisher : Arcadia Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1467124389
Total Pages : 128 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (671 download)

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Book Synopsis Lost Buxton by : Rachelle Chase

Download or read book Lost Buxton written by Rachelle Chase and published by Arcadia Publishing. This book was released on 2017 with total page 128 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Buxton, Iowa, was an unincorporated coal mining town, established by Consolidation Coal Company in 1900. At a time when Jim Crow laws and segregation kept blacks and whites separated throughout the nation, Buxton was integrated. African American and Caucasian residents lived, worked, and went to school side by side. The company provided miners with equal housing and equal pay, regardless of race, and offered opportunities for African Americans beyond mining. Professional African Americans included a bank cashier, the justice of the peace, constables, doctors, attorneys, store clerks, and teachers. Businesses, such as a meat market, a drugstore, a bakery, a music store, hotels, millinery shops, a saloon, and restaurants, were owned by African Americans. For 10 years, African Americans made up more than half of the population. Unfortunately, in the early 1920s, the mines closed, and today, only a cemetery, a few foundations, and some crumbling ruins remain.

Exploring Buried Buxton

Author : David M. Gradwohl
Publisher : University of Iowa Press
ISBN 13 : 1587296659
Total Pages : 224 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (872 download)

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Book Synopsis Exploring Buried Buxton by : David M. Gradwohl

Download or read book Exploring Buried Buxton written by David M. Gradwohl and published by University of Iowa Press. This book was released on 1990-10 with total page 224 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Few sources before have dealt with the archaeology of African American settlements outside the Atlantic seaboard and the southern states. This book describes in detail the archaeological investigations conducted at the town site of Buxton, Iowa, a coal mining community inhabited by a significantly large population of blacks between 1900 and 1925. David Gradwohl and Nancy Osborn present the archaeology of Buxton from “the group up” to articulate the material remains with the data acquired from archival studies and oral history interviews. They also examine the broader significance of the Buxton experience in terms of those who lived there and their children and grandchildren who have heard about Buxton all their lives.

Iowa History Reader

Author : Marvin Bergman
Publisher : University of Iowa Press
ISBN 13 : 1609380118
Total Pages : 470 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (93 download)

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Book Synopsis Iowa History Reader by : Marvin Bergman

Download or read book Iowa History Reader written by Marvin Bergman and published by University of Iowa Press. This book was released on 2008-03-15 with total page 470 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In 1978 historian Joseph Wall wrote that Iowa was “still seeking to assert its own identity. . . . It has no real center where the elite of either power, wealth, or culture may congregate. Iowa, in short, is middle America.” In this collection of well-written and accessible essays, originally published in 1996, seventeen of the Hawkeye State’s most accomplished historians reflect upon the dramatic and not-so-dramatic shifts in the middle land’s history in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Marvin Bergman has drawn upon his years of editing the Annals of Iowa to gather contributors who cross disciplines, model the craft of writing a historical essay, cover more than one significant topic, and above all interpret history rather than recite it. In his preface to this new printing, he calls attention to publications that begin to fill the gaps noted in the 1996 edition. Rather than survey the basic facts, the essayists engage readers in the actual making of Iowa’s history by trying to understand the meaning of its past. By providing comprehensive accounts of topics in Iowa history that embrace the broader historiographical issues in American history, such as the nature of Progressivism and Populism, the debate over whether women’s expanded roles in wartime carried over to postwar periods, and the place of quantification in history, the essayists contribute substantially to debates at the national level at the same time that they interpret Iowa’s distinctive culture.

Bet the Farm

Author : Beth Hoffman
Publisher : Island Press
ISBN 13 : 164283159X
Total Pages : 274 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (428 download)

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Book Synopsis Bet the Farm by : Beth Hoffman

Download or read book Bet the Farm written by Beth Hoffman and published by Island Press. This book was released on 2021-10-05 with total page 274 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Eloquent and detailed...It's hard to have hope, but the organized observations and plans of Hoffman and people like her give me some. Read her book -- and listen." -- Jane Smiley, The Washington Post In her late 40s, Beth Hoffman decided to upend her comfortable life as a professor and journalist to move to her husband's family ranch in Iowa--all for the dream of becoming a farmer. There was just one problem: money. Half of America's two million farms made less than $300 in 2019, and many struggle just to stay afloat. Bet the Farm chronicles this struggle through Beth's eyes. She must contend with her father-in-law, who is reluctant to hand over control of the land. Growing oats is good for the environment but ends up being very bad for the wallet. And finding somewhere, in the midst of COVID-19, to slaughter grass finished beef is a nightmare. If Beth can't make it, how can farmers who confront racism, lack access to land, or don't have other jobs to fall back on hack it? Bet the Farm is a first-hand account of the perils of farming today and a personal exploration of more just and sustainable ways of producing food.

Irish Iowa

Author : Timothy Walch
Publisher : Arcadia Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1439666296
Total Pages : 163 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (396 download)

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Book Synopsis Irish Iowa by : Timothy Walch

Download or read book Irish Iowa written by Timothy Walch and published by Arcadia Publishing. This book was released on 2019-03-04 with total page 163 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Iowa offered freedom and prosperity to the Irish fleeing famine and poverty. They became the second-largest immigrant group to come to the state, and they acquired influence well beyond their numbers. The first hospitals, schools and asylums in the area were established by Irish nuns. Irish laborers laid the tracks and ran the trains that transported crops to market. Kate Shelley became a national heroine when she saved a passenger train from plunging off a bridge. The Sullivan family became the symbol of sacrifice when they lost their five sons in World War II. Author Timothy Walch details these stories and more on the history and influence of the Irish in the Heartland.

Notes from No Man's Land

Author : Eula Biss
Publisher : Graywolf Press
ISBN 13 : 1555970222
Total Pages : 221 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (559 download)

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Book Synopsis Notes from No Man's Land by : Eula Biss

Download or read book Notes from No Man's Land written by Eula Biss and published by Graywolf Press. This book was released on 2011-03-01 with total page 221 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Winner of the National Book Critics Circle Award for Criticism Winner of the Graywolf Press Nonfiction Prize A frank and fascinating exploration of race and racial identity Notes from No Man's Land: American Essays begins with a series of lynchings and ends with a series of apologies. Eula Biss explores race in America and her response to the topic is informed by the experiences chronicled in these essays -- teaching in a Harlem school on the morning of 9/11, reporting for an African American newspaper in San Diego, watching the aftermath of Katrina from a college town in Iowa, and settling in Chicago's most diverse neighborhood. As Biss moves across the country from New York to California to the Midwest, her essays move across time from biblical Babylon to the freedman's schools of Reconstruction to a Jim Crow mining town to post-war white flight. She brings an eclectic education to the page, drawing variously on the Eagles, Laura Ingalls Wilder, James Baldwin, Alexander Graham Bell, Joan Didion, religious pamphlets, and reality television shows. These spare, sometimes lyric essays explore the legacy of race in America, artfully revealing in intimate detail how families, schools, and neighborhoods participate in preserving racial privilege. Faced with a disturbing past and an unsettling present, Biss still remains hopeful about the possibilities of American diversity, "not the sun-shininess of it, or the quota-making politics of it, but the real complexity of it."

Focus: How One Word a Week Will Transform Your Life

Author : Cleere Cherry
Publisher : Dayspring
ISBN 13 : 9781644548172
Total Pages : 208 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (481 download)

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Book Synopsis Focus: How One Word a Week Will Transform Your Life by : Cleere Cherry

Download or read book Focus: How One Word a Week Will Transform Your Life written by Cleere Cherry and published by Dayspring. This book was released on 2020-09-07 with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: What if your focus shifted from the things you weren't getting right toward making one good change a week? In these 52 devotions, Cleere Cherry encourages you to be intentional about renewing your mind without attempting to be perfect or set unrealistic expectations. Just think: what if you let the word grace seep into your everyday life for seven straight days. You wrote it on post-it notes and put them on your fridge, in your car, at your desk, by your bed. The entire week you focused on responding to every situation with grace, no matter what. You think, "I can't believe he just cut me off." Then you think "rememberƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚]ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚€ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚]grace." You think, "Why isn't she listening to me?" Then you hear a whisper, "don't forgetƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚]ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚€ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚]grace." For one week you focus on grace, the next week you focus on gentleness, the next week you focus on forgivenessƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚]ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚€ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚ƒƒ‚‚‚ƒƒ‚‚ƒ‚‚].one word per week for an entire year. Before you know it, you're no longer worried about being perfect, but more excited about having a closer connection to God and living a life free from perfectionism, free from being pulled in different directions, and more attuned to your love for God and for others.

Iowa Past to Present

Author : Dorothy Schwieder
Publisher : University of Iowa Press
ISBN 13 : 9781587295515
Total Pages : 324 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (955 download)

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Book Synopsis Iowa Past to Present by : Dorothy Schwieder

Download or read book Iowa Past to Present written by Dorothy Schwieder and published by University of Iowa Press. This book was released on 2002-04 with total page 324 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A textbook for fifth grade students which traces the history of Iowa from its earliest inhabitants to the coming of modern times.

The Archaeology of Race and Racialization in Historic America

Author : Charles E. Orser
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780813031439
Total Pages : 213 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (314 download)

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Book Synopsis The Archaeology of Race and Racialization in Historic America by : Charles E. Orser

Download or read book The Archaeology of Race and Racialization in Historic America written by Charles E. Orser and published by . This book was released on 2007 with total page 213 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Orser argues that race has not always been defined by skin color; through time its meaning has changed. The process of racialization has marked most groups who came to the United States in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, and The Archaeology of Race and Racialization in Historic America demonstrates ways that historical archaeology can contribute to understanding a fundamental element of the American immigrant experience."--BOOK JACKET.

Buxton

Author : Dorothy Schwieder
Publisher : University of Iowa Press
ISBN 13 : 1587298953
Total Pages : 277 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (872 download)

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Book Synopsis Buxton by : Dorothy Schwieder

Download or read book Buxton written by Dorothy Schwieder and published by University of Iowa Press. This book was released on 2003-10 with total page 277 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From 1900 until the early 1920s, an unusual community existed in America's heartland-Buxton, Iowa. Originally established by the Consolidation Coal Company, Buxton was the largest unincorporated coal mining community in Iowa. What made Buxton unique, however, is the fact that the majority of its 5,000 residents were African Americans—a highly unusual racial composition for a state which was over 90 percent white. At a time when both southern and northern blacks were disadvantaged and oppressed, blacks in Buxton enjoyed true racial integration—steady employment, above-average wages, decent housing, and minimal discrimination. For such reasons, Buxton was commonly known as “the black man's utopia in Iowa.” Containing documentary evidence—including newspapers, census records, photographs, and state mining reports—along with interviews of 75 former residents, Buxton: Work and Racial Equality in a Coal Mining Community (originally published in 1987 and winner of the 1988 Benjamin Shambaugh Award) explored the Buxton experience from a variety of perspectives. The authors—an American historian, a family sociologist, and a race relations sociologist—provided a truly interdisciplinary history of one Iowa's most unique communities. Now, eighty years after the town's demise and fifteen years after Buxton's original publication, the history of this Iowa town remains a compelling story that continues to capture people's imaginations. In Buxton: A Black Utopia in the Heartland, the authors offer further reflections upon their original study and the many former Buxton residents who shared their memories. In the new essay, “A Buxton Perspective,” issues such as social class and the town's continuing legacy are addressed. The voices captured inBuxton, although recorded over twenty years ago, still resonate with exuberance, affection, and poignancy; this expanded edition will bring their amazing stories back to the forefront of Iowa and American history.

An African American and Latinx History of the United States

Author : Paul Ortiz
Publisher : Beacon Press
ISBN 13 : 0807013102
Total Pages : 298 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (7 download)

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Book Synopsis An African American and Latinx History of the United States by : Paul Ortiz

Download or read book An African American and Latinx History of the United States written by Paul Ortiz and published by Beacon Press. This book was released on 2018-01-30 with total page 298 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An intersectional history of the shared struggle for African American and Latinx civil rights Spanning more than two hundred years, An African American and Latinx History of the United States is a revolutionary, politically charged narrative history, arguing that the “Global South” was crucial to the development of America as we know it. Scholar and activist Paul Ortiz challenges the notion of westward progress as exalted by widely taught formulations like “manifest destiny” and “Jacksonian democracy,” and shows how placing African American, Latinx, and Indigenous voices unapologetically front and center transforms US history into one of the working class organizing against imperialism. Drawing on rich narratives and primary source documents, Ortiz links racial segregation in the Southwest and the rise and violent fall of a powerful tradition of Mexican labor organizing in the twentieth century, to May 1, 2006, known as International Workers’ Day, when migrant laborers—Chicana/os, Afrocubanos, and immigrants from every continent on earth—united in resistance on the first “Day Without Immigrants.” As African American civil rights activists fought Jim Crow laws and Mexican labor organizers warred against the suffocating grip of capitalism, Black and Spanish-language newspapers, abolitionists, and Latin American revolutionaries coalesced around movements built between people from the United States and people from Central America and the Caribbean. In stark contrast to the resurgence of “America First” rhetoric, Black and Latinx intellectuals and organizers today have historically urged the United States to build bridges of solidarity with the nations of the Americas. Incisive and timely, this bottom-up history, told from the interconnected vantage points of Latinx and African Americans, reveals the radically different ways that people of the diaspora have addressed issues still plaguing the United States today, and it offers a way forward in the continued struggle for universal civil rights. 2018 Winner of the PEN Oakland/Josephine Miles Literary Award

In Search of the Promised Land

Author : John Hope Franklin
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190207604
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis In Search of the Promised Land by : John Hope Franklin

Download or read book In Search of the Promised Land written by John Hope Franklin and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2005-09-01 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The matriarch of a remarkable African American family, Sally Thomas went from being a slave on a tobacco plantation to a "virtually free" slave who ran her own business and purchased one of her sons out of bondage. In Search of the Promised Land offers a vivid portrait of the extended Thomas-Rapier family and of slave life before the Civil War. Based on personal letters and an autobiography by one of Thomas' sons, this remarkable piece of detective work follows the family as they walk the boundary between slave and free, traveling across the country in search of a "promised land" where African Americans would be treated with respect. Their record of these journeys provides a vibrant picture of antebellum America, ranging from New Orleans to St. Louis to the Overland Trail. The authors weave a compelling narrative that illuminates the larger themes of slavery and freedom while examining the family's experiences with the California Gold Rush, Civil War battles, and steamboat adventures. The documents show how the Thomas-Rapier kin bore witness to the full gamut of slavery--from brutal punishment, runaways, and the breakup of slave families to miscegenation, insurrection panics, and slave patrols. The book also exposes the hidden lives of "virtually free" slaves, who maintained close relationships with whites, maneuvered within the system, and gained a large measure of autonomy.

Iowa

Author : Dorothy Schwieder
Publisher : University of Iowa Press
ISBN 13 : 1587295490
Total Pages : 400 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (872 download)

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Book Synopsis Iowa by : Dorothy Schwieder

Download or read book Iowa written by Dorothy Schwieder and published by University of Iowa Press. This book was released on 1996-03 with total page 400 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this engrossing history of the Hawkeye State, Dorothy Schweider reveals a place of fascinating grassroots politics, economic troubles and triumphs, surprising cultural diversity, and unsung natural beauty. Above all, this is the history of the people of Iowa and the lives they have led—the accomplishments of both ordinary and not-so-ordinary Iowans.

The Red Network; A Who's Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots

Author : Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling
Publisher : Franklin Classics
ISBN 13 : 9780343018009
Total Pages : 358 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (18 download)

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Book Synopsis The Red Network; A Who's Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots by : Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling

Download or read book The Red Network; A Who's Who and Handbook of Radicalism for Patriots written by Elizabeth Kirkpatrick Dilling and published by Franklin Classics. This book was released on 2018-10-14 with total page 358 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work has been selected by scholars as being culturally important and is part of the knowledge base of civilization as we know it. This work is in the public domain in the United States of America, and possibly other nations. Within the United States, you may freely copy and distribute this work, as no entity (individual or corporate) has a copyright on the body of the work. Scholars believe, and we concur, that this work is important enough to be preserved, reproduced, and made generally available to the public. To ensure a quality reading experience, this work has been proofread and republished using a format that seamlessly blends the original graphical elements with text in an easy-to-read typeface. We appreciate your support of the preservation process, and thank you for being an important part of keeping this knowledge alive and relevant.

Valleys of the Shadow

Author : Reuben Grove Clark
Publisher : Univ. of Tennessee Press
ISBN 13 : 9780870498190
Total Pages : 208 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (981 download)

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Book Synopsis Valleys of the Shadow by : Reuben Grove Clark

Download or read book Valleys of the Shadow written by Reuben Grove Clark and published by Univ. of Tennessee Press. This book was released on 1994 with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: They also offer valuable analyses of battles from a participant's point of view and discuss the irony many soldiers felt when combat pitted them against men they had known before the war in business, politics, and society.