Cause And Effect Conditionals Explanations

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Cause and Effect, Conditionals, Explanations

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 0983452113
Total Pages : 204 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (834 download)

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Book Synopsis Cause and Effect, Conditionals, Explanations by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book Cause and Effect, Conditionals, Explanations written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2018-11-05 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This series of books presents the fundamentals of reasoning well, in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the footnotes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The essays overlap, forming a unified analysis of reasoning, yet each essay is designed so that it may be read independently of the others. The topic of this volume is the evaluation of reasoning about cause and effect, reasoning using conditionals, and reasoning that involves explanations. The essay "Reasoning about Cause and Effect" sets out a way to analyze whether there is cause and effect in terms of whether an inference from a claim describing the purported cause to a claim describing the purported effect satisfies specific conditions. Different notions of cause and effect correspond to placing different conditions on what counts as a good causal inference. An application of that method in "The Directedness of Emotions" leads to a clearer understanding of the issue whether every emotion need be directed at something. In the essay "Conditionals" various ways of analyzing reasoning with claims of the form "if . . . then . . ." are surveyed. Some of those uses are meant to be judged as inferences that are not necessarily valid, and conditions are given for when we can consider such inferences to be good. In "Explanations" verbal answers to a question why a claim is true are evaluated in terms of conditions placed on inferences from the explaining claims to the claim being explained. Recognizing that the direction of inference of such an explanation is the reverse of that for an argument with the very same claims is crucial in their evaluation. Explanations in terms of functions and goals are also investigated.

Reasoning and Formal Logic

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 1938421043
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (384 download)

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Book Synopsis Reasoning and Formal Logic by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book Reasoning and Formal Logic written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2018-11-05 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This series of books presents the fundamentals of logic in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the notes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The basic theme here is the analysis of formal logic in terms of what metaphysical assumptions we need when we develop the formal systems we use. The essays together give a perspective of formal logic as part of the art of reasoning well. The essays are • Possibilities and Valid Inferences, • A General Framework for Semantics for Propositional Logics, • Why Are There So Many Logics? • Truth and Reasoning, • On Translations, • Reflections on Temporal and Modal Logic, • The Timelessness of Classical Predicate Logic, • Events in the Metaphysics of Predicate Logic, • Categoricity with Minimal Metaphysics, • Reflections on Gödel's Theorems, • On the Error in Frege's Proof that Names Denote, and • Postscript: Logic as the Art of Reasoning Well.

Reasoning in Science and Mathematics

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 098345213X
Total Pages : 133 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (834 download)

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Book Synopsis Reasoning in Science and Mathematics by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book Reasoning in Science and Mathematics written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2018-11-05 with total page 133 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This series of books is meant to present the fundamentals of reasoning well in a clear manner accessible to both scholars and students. The body of each essay gives the main development of the subject, while the footnotes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The topic of this volume is the nature and evaluation of reasoning in science and mathematics. Science and mathematics can both be understood as proceeding by a method of abstraction from experience. Mathematics is distinguished from other sciences only in its greater abstraction and its demand for necessity in its inferences. That methodology of abstraction is the main focus here. The study of these subjects is not just of academic interest but can lead to better research in science and mathematics. First comes clear thinking, then comes clear research and clear writing. The essays: • Background • Models and Theories • Experiments • Mathematics as the Art of Abstraction.

Language and the World

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 1938421574
Total Pages : 307 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (384 download)

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Book Synopsis Language and the World by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book Language and the World written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2021-07-09 with total page 307 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents a new perspective on ways we encounter the world with our languages. There are two kinds of languages. Some direct speakers to encounter the world as made up of things. Others direct speakers to encounter the world as the flow of all with no idea of change, for there is no thing to change, only differing descriptions of the flow. The essays by Richard L. Epstein set out this division of languages and explore its significance for linguistics, metaphysics, thought, meaning, logic, and ethics. The other essays, by Dorothy Lee, Benjamin Lee Whorf, M. Dale Kinkade, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Benson Mates, extend, or contradict, or support those ideas, leading to a large view of how we talk and understand, and how that affects how we live.

Propositional Logics 3rd edition

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 0983452172
Total Pages : 509 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (834 download)

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Book Synopsis Propositional Logics 3rd edition by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book Propositional Logics 3rd edition written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2018-11-05 with total page 509 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents the history, philosophy, and mathematics of the major systems of propositional logic. Classical logic, modal logics, many-valued logics, intuitionism, paraconsistent logics, and dependent implication are examined in separate chapters. Each begins with a motivation in the originators' own terms, followed by the standard formal semantics, syntax, and completeness theorem. The chapters on the various logics are largely self-contained so that the book can be used as a reference. An appendix summarizes the formal semantics and axiomatizations of the logics. The view that unifies the exposition is that propositional logics comprise a spectrum: as the aspect of propositions under consideration varies, the logic varies. Each logic is shown to fall naturally within a general framework for semantics. A theory of translations between logics is presented that allows for further comparisons, and necessary conditions are given for a translation to preserve meaning. For this third edition the material has been re-organized to make the text easier to study, and a new section on paraconsistent logics with simple semantics has been added which challenges standard views on the nature of consequence relations. The text includes worked examples and hundreds of exercises, from routine to open problems, making the book with its clear and careful exposition ideal for courses or individual study.

The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 1938421302
Total Pages : 201 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (384 download)

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Book Synopsis The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2019-07-09 with total page 201 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: First comes clear thinking, then comes clear writing. *** The Pocket Guide to Critical Thinking teaches very clearly the essential skills to reason better--for classwork, for writing, and in everyday life. Hundreds of pertinent, analyzed, and engaging examples from the Internet, magazines, newspapers, radio, as well as dialogues of cartoon characters illustrate how to analyze arguments and make better decisions. The Pocket Guide is both the perfect supplement for any course that requires critical thinking and a practical aid for self-study. This fifth edition has new chapters on reasoning in the sciences that provide the basics for any student to begin the study of any science: explanations, experiments, the scientific methods, and models and theories.

Abduction and Induction

Author : P.A. Flach
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9401706069
Total Pages : 317 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis Abduction and Induction by : P.A. Flach

Download or read book Abduction and Induction written by P.A. Flach and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-04-18 with total page 317 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the very beginning of their investigation of human reasoning, philosophers have identified two other forms of reasoning, besides deduction, which we now call abduction and induction. Deduction is now fairly well understood, but abduction and induction have eluded a similar level of understanding. The papers collected here address the relationship between abduction and induction and their possible integration. The approach is sometimes philosophical, sometimes that of pure logic, and some papers adopt the more task-oriented approach of AI. The book will command the attention of philosophers, logicians, AI researchers and computer scientists in general.

The Fundamentals of Argument Analysis

Author : Richard L Epstein
Publisher : Advanced Reasoning Forum
ISBN 13 : 193842106X
Total Pages : 229 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (384 download)

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Book Synopsis The Fundamentals of Argument Analysis by : Richard L Epstein

Download or read book The Fundamentals of Argument Analysis written by Richard L Epstein and published by Advanced Reasoning Forum. This book was released on 2018-11-05 with total page 229 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This series of books presents the fundamentals of logic in a style accessible to both students and scholars. The text of each essay presents a story, the main line of development of the ideas, while the notes and appendices place the research within a larger scholarly context. The essays overlap, forming a unified analysis of logic as the art of reasoning well, yet each essay is designed so that it may be read independently. The question addressed in this volume is how we can justify our beliefs through reasoning. The first essay, "Arguments," investigates what it is that we call true or false and how we reason toward truths through arguments. A general theory of argument analysis is set out on the basis of what we can assume about those with whom we reason. The next essay, "Fallacies," explains how the classification of an argument as a fallacy can be used within that general approach. In contrast, there is no agreement on what the terms "induction" and "deduction" mean, and they are not useful in evaluating arguments, as shown in "Induction and Deduction." In reasoning to truths, in the end we must take some claims as basic, not requiring any justification for accepting them. How we choose those claims and how they affect our reasoning is examined in "Base Claims." The essay "Analogies" considers how comparisons can be used as the basis of arguments, arguing from similar situations to similar conclusions. An important use of analogies is in reasoning about the mental life of other people and things, which is examined in "Subjective Claims," written with Fred Kroon and William S. Robinson. "Generalizing" examines how to argue from part of a collection or mass to the whole or a larger part. The question there is whether we are ever justified in accepting such an argument as good. "Probabilities" sets out the three main ways probability statements have been interpreted: the logical relation view, the frequency view, and the subjective degree of belief view. Each of those is shown to be inadequate to make precise the scale of plausibility of claims and the scale of the likelihood of a possibility. Many discussions of how to reason well and what counts as good reason are given in terms of who or what is rational. In the final essay, "Rationality," it's shown that what we mean by the idea of someone being rational is of very little use in evaluating reasoning or actions. This volume is meant to give a clearer idea of how to reason well, setting out methods of evaluation that are motivated in terms of our abilities and interests. At the ground of our reasoning, though, are metaphysical assumptions, too basic and too much needed in our reasoning for us to justify them through reasoning. But we can try to uncover those assumptions to see how they are important and what depends on them.

Explanation in Action Theory and Historiography

Author : Gunnar Schumann
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429000650
Total Pages : 267 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (29 download)

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Book Synopsis Explanation in Action Theory and Historiography by : Gunnar Schumann

Download or read book Explanation in Action Theory and Historiography written by Gunnar Schumann and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2019-05-29 with total page 267 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Is the appropriate form of human action explanation causal or rather teleological? While this is a central question in analytic philosophy of action, it also has implications for questions about the differences between methods of explanation in the sciences on the one hand and in the humanities and the social sciences on the other. Additionally, this question bears on the problem of the appropriate form of explanations of past human actions, and therefore it is prominently discussed by analytic philosophers of historiography. This volume brings together causalists and anti-causalists to address enduring philosophical questions at the heart of this debate, as well as their implications for the practice of historiography. Part I considers the quarrel between causalism and anti-causalism in recent developments in the philosophy of action. Part II presents papers by causalists and anti-causalists that are more narrowly focused on the philosophy of historiography.

The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning

Author : Keith J. Holyoak
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780521824170
Total Pages : 880 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (241 download)

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Book Synopsis The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning by : Keith J. Holyoak

Download or read book The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning written by Keith J. Holyoak and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2005-04-18 with total page 880 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning is the first comprehensive and authoritative handbook covering all the core topics of the field of thinking and reasoning. Written by the foremost experts from cognitive psychology, cognitive science, and cognitive neuroscience, individual chapters summarize basic concepts and findings for a major topic, sketch its history, and give a sense of the directions in which research is currently heading. The volume also includes work related to developmental, social and clinical psychology, philosophy, economics, artificial intelligence, linguistics, education, law, and medicine. Scholars and students in all these fields and others will find this to be a valuable collection.

MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review

Author : Kaplan Test Prep
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1506210260
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (62 download)

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Book Synopsis MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review by : Kaplan Test Prep

Download or read book MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review written by Kaplan Test Prep and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2016-07-05 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: More people get into medical school with a Kaplan MCAT course than all major courses combined. Now the same results are available with MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review. This book features thorough subject review, more questions than any competitor, and the highest-yield questions available. The commentary and instruction come directly from Kaplan MCAT experts and include targeted focus on the most-tested concepts. MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review offers: UNPARALLELED MCAT KNOWLEDGE: The Kaplan MCAT team has spent years studying every MCAT-related document available. In conjunction with our expert psychometricians, the Kaplan team is able to ensure the accuracy and realism of our practice materials. THOROUGH SUBJECT REVIEW: Written by top-rated, award-winning Kaplan instructors, all material has been vetted by editors with advanced English degrees and by a medical doctor. EXPANDED CONTENT THROUGHOUT: The AAMC tests not only content knowledge, critical thinking, and critical analysis and reasoning skills, but also two other important scientific skills: research design and the execution of research, and data-based and statistical analysis. This book has expanded material to help you master these skills for Test Day. MORE PRACTICE THAN THE COMPETITION: With questions throughout the book and access to a full-length practice test online, MCAT CARS Review has more practice than any other MCAT CARS book on the market. ONLINE COMPANION: One practice test and additional online resources help augment content studying. The MCAT is a computer-based test, so practicing in the same format as Test Day is key. KAPLAN'S MCAT REPUTATION: Kaplan is a leader in the MCAT prep market, and twice as many doctors prepared for the MCAT with Kaplan than with any other course.* UTILITY: Can be used alone or with other companion books in Kaplan's MCAT Review series. * Doctors refers to US MDs who were licensed between 2001-2010 and used a fee-based course to prepare for the MCAT. The AlphaDetail, Inc. online study for Kaplan was conducted between Nov. 10 - Dec. 9, 2010 among 763 US licensed MDs, of whom 462 took the MCAT and used a fee-based course to prepare for it.

MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review

Author : Alexander Stone Macnow
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1506203272
Total Pages : 337 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (62 download)

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Book Synopsis MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review by : Alexander Stone Macnow

Download or read book MCAT Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills Review written by Alexander Stone Macnow and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2016-07-05 with total page 337 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "The most effcient learning for the MCAT results you want. Kaplan's MCAT Critical Analysis and Resoning Skills (CARS) Review has all the information and strategies you need to score higher on the MCAT. This book features more practice than any other guide, plus targeted startegy review, opportunities for self-analysis, a complete online center, and thorough instruction on all of the critical thinking skills necessary for MCAT success--from the creators of the #1 MCAT prep course,"--page [4] of cover.

Computational Logic and Human Thinking

Author : Robert Kowalski
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1139498150
Total Pages : 333 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (394 download)

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Book Synopsis Computational Logic and Human Thinking by : Robert Kowalski

Download or read book Computational Logic and Human Thinking written by Robert Kowalski and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2011-07-21 with total page 333 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The practical benefits of computational logic need not be limited to mathematics and computing. As this book shows, ordinary people in their everyday lives can profit from the recent advances that have been developed for artificial intelligence. The book draws upon related developments in various fields from philosophy to psychology and law. It pays special attention to the integration of logic with decision theory, and the use of logic to improve the clarity and coherence of communication in natural languages such as English. This book is essential reading for teachers and researchers who may be out of touch with the latest developments in computational logic. It will also be useful in any undergraduate course that teaches practical thinking, problem solving or communication skills. Its informal presentation makes the book accessible to readers from any background, but optional, more formal, chapters are also included for those who are more technically oriented.

Conditional Reasoning

Author : Raymond Nickerson
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190203005
Total Pages : 473 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

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Book Synopsis Conditional Reasoning by : Raymond Nickerson

Download or read book Conditional Reasoning written by Raymond Nickerson and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2015-06-12 with total page 473 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Conditional reasoning is reasoning that involves statements of the sort If A (Antecedent) then C (Consequent). This type of reasoning is ubiquitous; everyone engages in it. Indeed, the ability to do so may be considered a defining human characteristic. Without this ability, human cognition would be greatly impoverished. "What-if" thinking could not occur. There would be no retrospective efforts to understand history by imagining how it could have taken a different course. Decisions that take possible contingencies into account could not be made; there could be no attempts to influence the future by selecting actions on the basis of their expected effects. Despite the commonness and importance of conditional reasoning and the considerable attention it has received from scholars, it remains the subject of much continuing debate. Unsettled questions, both normative and empirical, continue to be asked. What constitutes normative conditional reasoning? How do people engage in it? Does what people do match what would be expected of a rational agent with the abilities and limitations of human beings? If not, how does it deviate and how might people's ability to engage in it be improved? This book reviews the work of prominent psychologists and philosophers on conditional reasoning. It describes empirical research on how people deal with conditional arguments and on how conditional statements are used and interpreted in everyday communication. It examines philosophical and theoretical treatments of the mental processes that support conditional reasoning. Its extensive coverage of the subject makes it an ideal resource for students, teachers, and researchers with a focus on cognition across disciplines.

Explaining Explanation

Author : David-Hillel Ruben
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317259912
Total Pages : 281 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (172 download)

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Book Synopsis Explaining Explanation by : David-Hillel Ruben

Download or read book Explaining Explanation written by David-Hillel Ruben and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2015-12-03 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This second edition of David-Hillel Ruben's influential and highly acclaimed book on the philosophy of explanation has been revised and expanded, and the author has made substantial changes in light of the extensive reviews the first edition received. Ruben's views on the place of laws in explanation has been refined and clarified. What is perhaps the central thesis of the book, his realist view of explanation, describing the way in which explanation depends on metaphysics, has been updated and extended and engages with some of the work in this area published since the book's first edition.

Cognition and Conditionals

Author : Mike Oaksford
Publisher : Oxford University Press, USA
ISBN 13 : 0199233292
Total Pages : 420 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (992 download)

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Book Synopsis Cognition and Conditionals by : Mike Oaksford

Download or read book Cognition and Conditionals written by Mike Oaksford and published by Oxford University Press, USA. This book was released on 2010 with total page 420 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The conditional, if...then, is probably the most important term in natural language and forms the core of systems of logic and mental representation. Cognition and Conditionals is the first volume for over 20 years that brings together recent developments in the cognitive science and psychology of conditional reasoning.

Explanation, Causation and Deduction

Author : Fred Wilson
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 940095249X
Total Pages : 399 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (9 download)

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Book Synopsis Explanation, Causation and Deduction by : Fred Wilson

Download or read book Explanation, Causation and Deduction written by Fred Wilson and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-12-06 with total page 399 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of this essay is to defend the deductive-nomological model of explanation against a number of criticisms that have been made of it. It has traditionally been thought that scientific explanations were causal and that scientific explanations involved deduction from laws. In recent years, however, this three-fold identity has been challenged: there are, it is argued, causal explanations that are not scientific, scientific explanations that are not deductive, deductions from laws that are neither causal explanations nor scientific explanations, and causal explanations that involve no deductions from laws. The aim of the present essay is to defend the traditional identities, and to show that the more recent attempts at invalidating them fail in their object. More specifically, this essay argues that a Humean version of the deductive-nomological model of explanation can be defended as (1) the correct account of scientific explanation of individual facts and processes, and as (2) the correct account of causal explanations of individual facts and processes. The deductive-nomological model holds that to explain an event E, say that a is G, one must find some initial conditions C, say that a is F, and a law or theory T such that T and C jointly entail E, and both are essential to the deduction.