Camera Orientalis

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Camera Orientalis

Author : Ali Behdad
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 022635640X
Total Pages : 229 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (263 download)

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Book Synopsis Camera Orientalis by : Ali Behdad

Download or read book Camera Orientalis written by Ali Behdad and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2016-08-12 with total page 229 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the time of its invention in 1839, photography had a crucial link to the Middle East. When Daguerre s invention was introduced, it was immediately hailed as a boon to Egyptologists and Orientalists wanting to document their archeological findings. The Middle East also beckoned European experimenters in this new medium for a simple technological reason: early photographs were more quickly and easily made in the intense light of the desert than in gloomy Paris or London. In Camera Orientalis, Ali Behdad examines the cultural and political implications of the emergence of photography in the Middle East. He shows that the camera proved useful to Orientalism, but so too was Orientalism useful to photographers, because it gave them a set of conventions by which to frame these exotic cultures in images for Western audiences. Behdad breaks with standard postcolonial approaches by showing that Orientalist photography was the product of contacts between the West and the East. Indeed, local photographers participated enthusiastically in exoticist representations of the region, adapting Orientalism to the taste of the local elite. Orientalist photography, we learn, was not a one-way street but rather the product of ideas and conventions that circulated between the West and the East."

Camera Palaestina

Author : Issam Nassar
Publisher : Univ of California Press
ISBN 13 : 0520382897
Total Pages : 208 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (23 download)

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Book Synopsis Camera Palaestina by : Issam Nassar

Download or read book Camera Palaestina written by Issam Nassar and published by Univ of California Press. This book was released on 2022-08-09 with total page 208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A free open access ebook is available upon publication. Learn more at www.luminosoa.org. Camera Palaestina is a critical exploration of Jerusalemite chronicler Wasif Jawhariyyeh (1904–1972) and his seven photography albums entitled The Illustrated History of Palestine. Jawhariyyeh’s nine hundred images narrate the rich cultural and political milieu of Ottoman and Mandate Palestine. Nassar, Sheehi, and Tamari locate this archive at the juncture between the history of photography in the Arab world and the social history of Palestine. Shedding new light on this foundational period, the authors explore not just major historical events and the development of an urban bourgeois lifestyle but a social field of vision of Palestinian life as exemplified in the Jerusalem community. Tracking the interplay between photographic images, the authors offer evidence of the unbroken field of material, historical, and collective experience from the living past to the living present of Arab Palestine.

The Violence of Law

Author : Jens Meierhenrich
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108675573
Total Pages : 769 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (86 download)

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Book Synopsis The Violence of Law by : Jens Meierhenrich

Download or read book The Violence of Law written by Jens Meierhenrich and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2024-04-30 with total page 769 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 'Lawfare' describes the systematic use and abuse of legal procedure for political ends. This provocative book examines this insufficiently understood form of warfare in post-genocide Rwanda, where it contributed to the making of dictatorship. Jens Meierhenrich provides a redescription of Rwanda's daring experiment in transitional justice known as inkiko gacaca. By dissecting the temporally and structurally embedded mechanisms and processes by which change agents in post-genocide Rwanda manoeuvred to create modified legal arrangements of things past, Meierhenrich reveals an unexpected jurisprudence of violence. Combining nomothetic and ideographic reasoning, he shows that the deformation of the gacaca courts – and thus the rise of lawfare in post-genocide Rwanda – was not preordained but the outcome of a violently structured contingency. The Violence of Law tells a disturbing tale and will appeal to scholars, advanced students, and practitioners of international and comparative law, African studies and human rights.

Picturing the Ottoman Armenian World

Author : David Low
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 0755600401
Total Pages : 273 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (556 download)

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Book Synopsis Picturing the Ottoman Armenian World by : David Low

Download or read book Picturing the Ottoman Armenian World written by David Low and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2022-06-30 with total page 273 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Armenian contribution to Ottoman photography is supposedly well known, with histories documenting the famous Ottoman Armenian-run studios of the imperial capital that produced Orientalist visions for tourists and images of modernity for a domestic elite. Neglected, however, have been the practitioners of the eastern provinces where the majority of Ottoman Armenians were to be found, with the result that their role in the medium has been obscured and wider Armenian history and experience distorted. Photography in the Ottoman East was grounded in very different concerns, with the work of studios rooted in the seismic social, political and cultural shifts that reshaped the region and Armenian lives during the empire's last decades. The first study of its kind, this book examines photographic activity in three sites on the Armenian plateau: Erzurum, Harput and Van. Arguing that local photographic practices were marked by the dominant activities and movements of these places, it describes a medium bound up in educational endeavours, mass migration and revolutionary politics. The camera both responded to and became the instrument of these phenomena. Light is shone on previously unknown practitioners and, more vitally, a perspective gained on the communities that they served. The book suggests that by contemplating the ways in which photographs were made, used, circulated and seen, we might form a picture of the Ottoman Armenian world.

The Topographic Imaginary

Author : Ari J. Blatt
Publisher : Liverpool University Press
ISBN 13 : 1800855567
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (8 download)

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Book Synopsis The Topographic Imaginary by : Ari J. Blatt

Download or read book The Topographic Imaginary written by Ari J. Blatt and published by Liverpool University Press. This book was released on 2022-05-13 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the early 1980s, art photographers from metropolitan France have been training their lenses on ordinary landscapes throughout the country they call home. The Topographic Imaginary is the first book to study this important and flourishing trend. It examines work by artists who meld documentary and creative modes to attune viewers to places that mainstream culture tends to tune out, but which, as Ari J. Blatt argues, are in fact more meaningful than they initially appear. From views of building sites in Paris, peri-urban edgelands, or a tangle of trees in a forest, to those that ponder the play of light and shadow on roadside fields in Normandy or the tacky colors painted on dated village shopfronts, images that signal the emergence of a “topographic turn” in contemporary French photography constitute new ways of seeing and sensing France’s diverse national territory. As Blatt suggests, they also represent a visual laboratory through which to investigate how landscape “scapes” our understanding of French culture. In their efforts to reimagine a more traditional and time-worn idea of France’s shared common space, topographic photographs animate conversations about capital and class; cities and their peripheries; the politics and impact of development; migration and borders; memory, history, and affect; empire and postcolonialism; national identity; and the changing environment. The Topographic Imaginary thus reveals how attending to place in pictures provides valuable insight into the disposition of a nation in flux.

Yale French Studies, Number 139

Author : Raisa Rexer
Publisher : Yale University Press
ISBN 13 : 0300257066
Total Pages : 200 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis Yale French Studies, Number 139 by : Raisa Rexer

Download or read book Yale French Studies, Number 139 written by Raisa Rexer and published by Yale University Press. This book was released on 2021 with total page 200 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The first Yale French Studies issue on photography, examining French photography's place in art, identity, and society through a lens of diversity and interdisciplinary investigation In its first issue on photography, this volume of Yale French Studies presents multiple avenues of interdisciplinary investigation designed to intersect and open up new areas of inquiry in the twenty-first century. These intersections push beyond traditional geographic and gender boundaries, exploring women's photography, new cultural contexts, trans orientalism, and minority and marginalized bodies. As they do so, they ask us to reconsider the way that we conceive of photography's place in the past and in our lives today.

The Handbook of Photography Studies

Author : Gil Pasternak
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000213072
Total Pages : 737 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (2 download)

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Book Synopsis The Handbook of Photography Studies by : Gil Pasternak

Download or read book The Handbook of Photography Studies written by Gil Pasternak and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2020-08-13 with total page 737 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Handbook of Photography Studies is a state-of-the-art overview of the field of photography studies, examining its thematic interests, dynamic research methodologies and multiple scholarly directions. It is a source of well-informed, analytical and reflective discussions of all the main subjects that photography scholars have been concerned with as well as a rigorous study of the field’s persistent expansion at a time when digital technology regularly boosts our exposure to new and historical photographs alike. Split into five core parts, the Handbook analyzes the field’s histories, theories and research strategies; discusses photography in academic disciplinary and interdisciplinary contexts; draws out the main concerns of photographic scholarship; interrogates photography’s cultural and geopolitical influences; and examines photography’s multiple uses and continued changing faces. Each part begins with an introductory text, giving historical contextualization and scholarly orientation. Featuring the work of international experts, and offering diverse examples, insights and discussions of the field’s rich historiography, the Handbook provides critical guidance to the most recent research in photography studies. This pioneering and comprehensive volume presents a systematic synopsis of the subject that will be an invaluable resource for photography researchers and students from all disciplinary backgrounds in the arts, humanities and social sciences.

Reading Marie al-Khazen’s Photographs

Author : Yasmine Nachabe Taan
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1350111570
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (51 download)

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Book Synopsis Reading Marie al-Khazen’s Photographs by : Yasmine Nachabe Taan

Download or read book Reading Marie al-Khazen’s Photographs written by Yasmine Nachabe Taan and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2020-11-26 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Lebanese photographer Marie al-Khazen seized every opportunity to use her camera during the years that she was active between 1920 and 1940. She not only documented her travels around tourist sites in Lebanon but also sought creative experimentation with her camera by staging scenes, manipulating shadows, and superimposing negatives to produce different effects in her prints. Within her photographs, bedouins and European friends, peasants and landlords, men and women comfortably share the same space. Her photographs include an intriguing collection portraying her family and friends living their everyday lives in 1920s and '30s Zgharta, a village in the north of Lebanon. Yasmine Nachabe Taan explores these photographs, emphasizing the ways in which notions of gender and class are inscribed within them and revealing how they are charged with symbols of women's emancipation to today's viewers, through women's presence as individuals, separate from family restrictions of that time. Images in which women are depicted smoking cigarettes, driving cars, riding horses, and accompanying men on hunting trips counteract the common ways in which women were portrayed in contemporary Lebanon.

Screen Shots

Author : Rebecca L. Stein
Publisher : Stanford University Press
ISBN 13 : 1503628035
Total Pages : 283 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (36 download)

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Book Synopsis Screen Shots by : Rebecca L. Stein

Download or read book Screen Shots written by Rebecca L. Stein and published by Stanford University Press. This book was released on 2021-06-01 with total page 283 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the last two decades, amid the global spread of smartphones, state killings of civilians have increasingly been captured on the cameras of both bystanders and police. Screen Shots studies this phenomenon from the vantage point of the Israeli occupation of Palestinian territories. Here, cameras have proliferated as political tools in the hands of a broad range of actors and institutions, including Palestinian activists, Israeli soldiers, Jewish settlers, and human rights workers. All trained their lens on Israeli state violence, propelled by a shared dream: that advances in digital photography—closer, sharper, faster—would advance their respective political agendas. Most would be let down. Drawing on ethnographic work, Rebecca L. Stein chronicles Palestinian video-activists seeking justice, Israeli soldiers laboring to perfect the military's image, and Zionist conspiracy theorists accusing Palestinians of "playing dead." Writing against techno-optimism, Stein investigates what camera dreams and disillusionment across these political divides reveal about the Israeli and Palestinian colonial present, and the shifting terms of power and struggle in the smartphone age.

Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography

Author : Staci Gem Scheiwiller
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1315512114
Total Pages : 444 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (155 download)

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Book Synopsis Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography by : Staci Gem Scheiwiller

Download or read book Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography written by Staci Gem Scheiwiller and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-12-01 with total page 444 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Nineteenth-century Iran was an ocularcentered society predicated on visuality and what was seen and unseen, and photographs became liminal sites of desire that maneuvered "betwixt and between" various social spaces—public, private, seen, unseen, accessible, and forbidden—thus mapping, graphing, and even transgressing those spaces, especially in light of increasing modernization and global contact during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Of primary interest is how photographs negotiated and coded gender, sexuality, and desire, becoming strategies of empowerment, of domination, of expression, and of being seen. Hence, the photograph became a vehicle to traverse multiple locations that various gendered physical bodies could not, and it was also the social and political relations that had preceded the photograph that determined those ideological spaces of (im)mobility. In identifying these notions in photographs, one may glean information about how modern Iran metamorphosed throughout its own long durée or resisted those societal transformations as a result of modernization.

Photographing Central Asia

Author : Svetlana Gorshenina
Publisher : Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG
ISBN 13 : 3110754460
Total Pages : 442 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis Photographing Central Asia by : Svetlana Gorshenina

Download or read book Photographing Central Asia written by Svetlana Gorshenina and published by Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG. This book was released on 2022-09-05 with total page 442 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume addresses new theoretical approaches in visual and memory studies that prompted to rethink of the photography of Russian Turkestan of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Attempts to relate the visual unknown documentations to postcolonial criticism also opened up new interpretive arenas, helping to decentralize the analysis of the history of photography. The aim of this volume is to interpret photography as a specific tool that reifies reality, subjectively frames it, and fits it into various political, ideological, commercial, scientific, and artistic contexts. Without reducing the entire argument to the binary of ‘photography and power’, the authors reveal the different modes of seeing that involve distinct cultural norms, social practices, power relations, levels of technology, and networks for circulating photography, and that determined the manner of its (re)use in constructing various images of Central Asia. The volume demonstrates that photography was the cornerstone of imperial media governance and discourse construction in colonial Turkestan of the tsarist and early Soviet periods. The various cases show the complex mechanisms by which images of Turkestan were created, remembered, or forgotten from the nineteenth until the twenty-first century. The book should appeal to scholars of the Russian Empire and Central Asia; of history of photography and visual culture; of memory studies. It should be appropriate for use in upper-level undergraduate courses, and even a broader public.

Acoustics of Empire

Author : Peter L. McMurray
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0197553788
Total Pages : 385 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (975 download)

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Book Synopsis Acoustics of Empire by : Peter L. McMurray

Download or read book Acoustics of Empire written by Peter L. McMurray and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2024 with total page 385 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How have sound and empire shaped one another historically? Acoustics of Empire recovers a sonic history that is bound up with imperial power and colonial rule. Bringing together contributions from historians, musicologists, anthropologists, and literary scholars, this book emphasizes the entangled histories of sound and empire. The intertwined legacies of sound and power are not simply historical curiosities; rather, they stand as formative influences in cultural modernity and its discontents that continue to shape the ways we hear and experience the world today.

Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History Volume 21. South-western Europe (1800-1914)

Author :
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004547568
Total Pages : 882 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (45 download)

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Book Synopsis Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History Volume 21. South-western Europe (1800-1914) by :

Download or read book Christian-Muslim Relations. A Bibliographical History Volume 21. South-western Europe (1800-1914) written by and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2023-12-14 with total page 882 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Christian-Muslim Relations, a Bibliographical History 21 (CMR 21), covering South-western Europe in the period 1800-1914, is a further volume in a general history of relations between the two faiths from the 7th century to the early 20th century. It comprises a series of introductory essays and the main body of detailed entries. These treat all the works, surviving or lost, that have been recorded. They provide biographical details of the authors, descriptions and assessments of the works themselves, and complete accounts of manuscripts, editions, translations and studies. The result of collaboration between numerous new and established scholars, CMR 21, along with the other volumes in this series, is intended as a fundamental tool for research in Christian-Muslim relations. Section Editors: Ines Aščerić-Todd, Clinton Bennett, Luis F. Bernabé Pons, Jaco Beyers, Emanuele Colombo, Lejla Demiri, Martha T. Frederiks, David D. Grafton, Stanisław Grodź, Alan M. Guenther, Vincenzo Lavenia, Arely Medina, Diego Melo Carrasco, Alain Messaoudi, Gordon Nickel, Claire Norton, Reza Pourjavady, Douglas Pratt, Charles Ramsey, Peter Riddell, Umar Ryad, Cornelia Soldat, Charles Tieszen, Carsten Walbiner, Catherina Wenzel.

Imaging and Imagining Palestine

Author : Karène Sanchez Summerer
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004437940
Total Pages : 458 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (44 download)

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Book Synopsis Imaging and Imagining Palestine by : Karène Sanchez Summerer

Download or read book Imaging and Imagining Palestine written by Karène Sanchez Summerer and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2021-07-05 with total page 458 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Imaging and Imagining Palestine is the first comprehensive study of photography during the British Mandate period (1918–1948). It addresses well-known archives, photos from private collections never available before and archives that have until recently remained closed. This interdisciplinary volume argues that photography is central to a different understanding of the social and political complexities of Palestine in this period. While Biblical and Orientalist images abound, the chapters in this book go further by questioning the impact of photography on the social histories of British Mandate Palestine. This book considers the specific archives, the work of individual photographers, methods for reading historical photography from the present and how we might begin the process of decolonising photography. "Imaging and Imagining Palestine presents a timely and much-needed critical evaluation of the role of photography in Palestine. Drawing together leading interdisciplinary specialists and engaging a range of innovative methodologies, the volume makes clear the ways in which photography reflects the shifting political, cultural and economic landscape of the British Mandate period, and experiences of modernity in Palestine. Actively problematising conventional understandings of production, circulation and the in/stability of the photographic document, Imaging and Imagining Palestine provides essential reading for decolonial studies of photography and visual culture studies of Palestine." - Chrisoula Lionis, author of Laughter in Occupied Palestine: Comedy and Identity in Art and Film "Imaging and Imagining Palestine is the first and much needed overview of photography during the British Mandate period. From well-known and accessible photographic archives to private family albums, it deals with the cultural and political relations of the period thinking about both the Western perceptions of Palestine as well as its modern social life. This book brings together an impressive array of material and analyses to form an interdisciplinary perspective that considers just how photography shapes our understanding of the past as well as the ways in which the past might be reclaimed." - Jack Persekian, Founding Director of Al Ma'mal Foundation for Contemporary Art in Jerusalem "Imaging and Imagining Palestine draws together a plethora of fresh approaches to the field of photography in Palestine. It considers Palestine as a central node in global photographic production and the ways in which photography shaped the modern imaging and imagining from within a fresh regional theoretical perspective." - Salwa Mikdadi, Director al Mawrid Arab Center for the Study of Art, New York University Abu Dhabi

Disputed Archival Heritage

Author : James Lowry
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000644502
Total Pages : 361 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (6 download)

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Book Synopsis Disputed Archival Heritage by : James Lowry

Download or read book Disputed Archival Heritage written by James Lowry and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-10-10 with total page 361 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Disputed Archival Heritage brings important new perspectives into the discourse on displaced archives. In contrast to shared or joint heritage framings, the book considers the implications of force, violence and loss in the displacement of archival heritage. With chapters from established and emerging scholars in archival studies, Disputed Archival Heritage extends and enriches the conversation that started with the earlier volume, Displaced Archives. Advancing novel theories and methods for understanding disputes and claims over archives, the volume includes chapters that focus on Indigenous records in settler colonial states; literary and community archives; sub-national and private sector displacements; successes in repatriating formerly displaced archives; comparisons with cultural objects seized by colonial powers and the relationship between repatriation and reparations. Analysing key concepts such as joint heritage and provenance, the contributors unsettle Western understandings of records, place and ownership. Disputed Archival Heritage speaks to the growing interest in shared archival heritage, repatriation of cultural artefacts and cultural diasporas. As such, it will be a useful resource for academics, students and practitioners working in the field of archives, records and information management, as well as cultural property and heritage management, peace and conflict studies and international law.

Cultural Entanglement in the Pre-Independence Arab World

Author : Anthony Gorman
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 0755606302
Total Pages : 281 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (556 download)

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Book Synopsis Cultural Entanglement in the Pre-Independence Arab World by : Anthony Gorman

Download or read book Cultural Entanglement in the Pre-Independence Arab World written by Anthony Gorman and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2020-11-26 with total page 281 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book examines the ways in which non-Arabic cultural influences interacted with the rich, complex and sometimes conflictual environment of the Arab world in the pre-independence era. It comprises a series of 11 detailed case studies, including topics such as the songs of Egyptian forced labourers in the British Army in World War I, the translation and commentary of an Ottoman text in interwar Palestine, and the contested use of French in the Algerian independence movement, that highlight the complex interplay of colonial pressures, traditional and novel art forms, local and international practices, notions of identity and belonging. The book demonstrates how the interaction between Arabic and non-Arabic cultural and intellectual production as well as influences from imperial Europe and the Islamic East, have in various times and spaces inspired creative tensions which challenge binary views of East-West relations and the standard imperialist-colonial frameworks. In this sense the volume seeks to offer a critique of both established modernising conceptions of cultural development and nationalist, nativist frameworks based on the values of a specific political project.

Making the Modern Turkish Citizen

Author : Özge Baykan Calafato
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 0755643291
Total Pages : 257 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (556 download)

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Book Synopsis Making the Modern Turkish Citizen by : Özge Baykan Calafato

Download or read book Making the Modern Turkish Citizen written by Özge Baykan Calafato and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2022-01-27 with total page 257 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Featuring over 100 colour images, this book explores the photographic self-representations of the urban middle classes in Turkey in the 1920s and the 1930s. Examining the relationship between photography and gender, body, space as well as materiality and language, its six chapters explore how the production and circulation of vernacular photographs contributed to the making of the modern Turkish citizen in the formative years of the Turkish Republic, when nation-building, secularization and modernization reforms took centre stage. Based on an extensive photographic archive, the book shows that individuals actively reproduced, circulated and negotiated the ideal citizen-image imposed by the Kemalist regime, reflecting not only state-imposed directives but also their class aspirations and other, wider social and cultural developments of the period, from Western fashion trends and movies to the increasing availability of modern consumer items. Calafato also reveals that the freedom from state control afforded by personal cameras allowed the desired image to be sometimes tweaked by incorporating elements from Ottoman and Turkic traditions, by pushing the boundaries of gender norms or by introducing playfulness. Making the Modern Turkish Citizen offers a valuable portrait of the ongoing political and social changes on the lives of the Turkish middle class, and of how they saw and wanted to present themselves, privately and publicly.