Black Detroit

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Black Detroit

Author : Herb Boyd
Publisher : HarperCollins
ISBN 13 : 0062346644
Total Pages : 470 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (623 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Detroit by : Herb Boyd

Download or read book Black Detroit written by Herb Boyd and published by HarperCollins. This book was released on 2017-06-06 with total page 470 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: NAACP 2017 Image Award Finalist 2018 Michigan Notable Books honoree The author of Baldwin’s Harlem looks at the evolving culture, politics, economics, and spiritual life of Detroit—a blend of memoir, love letter, history, and clear-eyed reportage that explores the city’s past, present, and future and its significance to the African American legacy and the nation’s fabric. Herb Boyd moved to Detroit in 1943, as race riots were engulfing the city. Though he did not grasp their full significance at the time, this critical moment would be one of many he witnessed that would mold his political activism and exposed a city restless for change. In Black Detroit, he reflects on his life and this landmark place, in search of understanding why Detroit is a special place for black people. Boyd reveals how Black Detroiters were prominent in the city’s historic, groundbreaking union movement and—when given an opportunity—were among the tireless workers who made the automobile industry the center of American industry. Well paying jobs on assembly lines allowed working class Black Detroiters to ascend to the middle class and achieve financial stability, an accomplishment not often attainable in other industries. Boyd makes clear that while many of these middle-class jobs have disappeared, decimating the population and hitting blacks hardest, Detroit survives thanks to the emergence of companies such as Shinola—which represent the strength of the Motor City and and its continued importance to the country. He also brings into focus the major figures who have defined and shaped Detroit, including William Lambert, the great abolitionist, Berry Gordy, the founder of Motown, Coleman Young, the city’s first black mayor, diva songstress Aretha Franklin, Malcolm X, and Ralphe Bunche, winner of the Nobel Peace Prize. With a stunning eye for detail and passion for Detroit, Boyd celebrates the music, manufacturing, politics, and culture that make it an American original.

The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford

Author : Beth Tompkins Bates
Publisher : Univ of North Carolina Press
ISBN 13 : 0807835641
Total Pages : 361 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (78 download)

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Book Synopsis The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford by : Beth Tompkins Bates

Download or read book The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford written by Beth Tompkins Bates and published by Univ of North Carolina Press. This book was released on 2012 with total page 361 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the 1920s, Henry Ford hired thousands of African American men for his open-shop system of auto manufacturing. This move was a rejection of the notion that better jobs were for white men only. In The Making of Black Detroit in the Age of Henry Ford

Black Bottom Saints

Author : Alice Randall
Publisher : HarperCollins
ISBN 13 : 0062968653
Total Pages : 397 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (629 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Bottom Saints by : Alice Randall

Download or read book Black Bottom Saints written by Alice Randall and published by HarperCollins. This book was released on 2020-08-18 with total page 397 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An enthralling literary tour-de-force that pays tribute to Detroit's legendary neighborhood, a mecca for jazz, sports, and politics, Black Bottom Saints is a powerful blend of fact and imagination reminiscent of E.L. Doctorow's classic novel Ragtime and Marlon James' Man Booker Award-winning masterpiece, A Brief History of Seven Killings. From the Great Depression through the post-World War II years, Joseph “Ziggy” Johnson, has been the pulse of Detroit’s famous Black Bottom. A celebrated gossip columnist for the city’s African-American newspaper, the Michigan Chronicle, he is also the emcee of one of the hottest night clubs, where he’s rubbed elbows with the legendary black artists of the era, including Ethel Waters, Billy Eckstein, and Count Basie. Ziggy is also the founder and dean of the Ziggy Johnson School of Theater. But now the doyen of Black Bottom is ready to hang up his many dapper hats. As he lays dying in the black-owned-and-operated Kirkwood Hospital, Ziggy reflects on his life, the community that was the center of his world, and the remarkable people who helped shape it. Inspired by the Catholic Saints Day Books, Ziggy curates his own list of Black Bottom’s venerable "52 Saints." Among them are a vulnerable Dinah Washington, a defiant Joe Louis, and a raucous Bricktop. Randall balances the stories of these larger-than-life "Saints" with local heroes who became household names, enthralling men and women whose unstoppable ambition, love of style, and faith in community made this black Midwestern neighborhood the rival of New York City’s Harlem. Accompanying these “tributes” are thoughtfully paired cocktails—special drinks that capture the essence of each of Ziggy’s saints—libations as strong and satisfying as Alice Randall’s wholly original view of a place and time unlike any other.

Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW

Author : August Meier
Publisher : University of Michigan Press
ISBN 13 : 9780472032198
Total Pages : 316 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (321 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW by : August Meier

Download or read book Black Detroit and the Rise of the UAW written by August Meier and published by University of Michigan Press. This book was released on 2007 with total page 316 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A classic of labor history, with a new foreword by one of the leading figures in urban studies

Remaking Respectability

Author : Victoria W. Wolcott
Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 1469611007
Total Pages : 360 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (696 download)

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Book Synopsis Remaking Respectability by : Victoria W. Wolcott

Download or read book Remaking Respectability written by Victoria W. Wolcott and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2013-01-01 with total page 360 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the early decades of the twentieth century, tens of thousands of African Americans arrived at Detroit's Michigan Central Station, part of the Great Migration of blacks who left the South seeking improved economic and political conditions in the urban North. The most visible of these migrants have been the male industrial workers who labored on the city's automobile assembly lines. African American women have largely been absent from traditional narratives of the Great Migration because they were excluded from industrial work. By placing these women at the center of her study, Victoria Wolcott reveals their vital role in shaping life in interwar Detroit. Wolcott takes us into the speakeasies, settlement houses, blues clubs, storefront churches, employment bureaus, and training centers of Prohibition- and depression-era Detroit. There, she explores the wide range of black women's experiences, focusing particularly on the interactions between working- and middle-class women. As Detroit's black population grew exponentially, women not only served as models of bourgeois respectability, but also began to reshape traditional standards of deportment in response to the new realities of their lives. In so doing, Wolcott says, they helped transform black politics and culture. Eventually, as the depression arrived, female respectability as a central symbol of reform was supplanted by a more strident working-class activism.

Detroit: I Do Mind Dying

Author : Marvin Surkin
Publisher : Haymarket Books
ISBN 13 : 1642598526
Total Pages : 299 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (425 download)

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Book Synopsis Detroit: I Do Mind Dying by : Marvin Surkin

Download or read book Detroit: I Do Mind Dying written by Marvin Surkin and published by Haymarket Books. This book was released on 2022-02-17 with total page 299 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Detroit: I Do Mind Dying tracks the extraordinary development of the Dodge Revolutionary Union Movement and the League of Revolutionary Black Workers as they became two of the landmark political organizations of the 1960s and 1970s. It is widely heralded as one the most important books on the black liberation movement. Marvin Surkin received his PhD in political science from New York University and is a specialist in comparative urban politics and social change. He worked at the center of the League of Revolutionary Black Workers in Detroit. Dan Georgakas is a writer, historian, and activist with a long-time interest in social movements. He is the author of My Detroit, Growing up Greek and American in Motor City.

Detroit:

Author : Jeremy Williams
Publisher : Arcadia Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1439624356
Total Pages : 128 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (396 download)

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Book Synopsis Detroit: by : Jeremy Williams

Download or read book Detroit: written by Jeremy Williams and published by Arcadia Publishing. This book was released on 2012-09-18 with total page 128 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Between 1914 and 1951, Black Bottom's black community emerged out of the need for black migrants to find a place for themselves. Because of the stringent racism and discrimination in housing, blacks migrating from the South seeking employment in Detroit's burgeoning industrial metropolis were forced to live in this former European immigrant community. During World War I through World War II, Black Bottom became a social, cultural, and economic center of struggle and triumph, as well as a testament to the tradition of black self-help and community-building strategies that have been the benchmark of black struggle. Black Bottom also had its troubles and woes. However, it would be these types of challenges confronting Black Bottom residents that would become part of the cohesive element that turned Black Bottom into a strong and viable community.

Detroit

Author : Charlie LeDuff
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 0143124463
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (431 download)

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Book Synopsis Detroit by : Charlie LeDuff

Download or read book Detroit written by Charlie LeDuff and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2014-01-28 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: An explosive exposé of America’s lost prosperity by Pulitzer Prize–winning journalist Charlie LeDuff “One cannot read Mr. LeDuff's amalgam of memoir and reportage and not be shaken by the cold eye he casts on hard truths . . . A little gonzo, a little gumshoe, some gawker, some good-Samaritan—it is hard to ignore reporting like Mr. LeDuff's.” —The Wall Street Journal “Pultizer-Prize-winning journalist LeDuff . . . writes with honesty and compassion about a city that’s destroying itself–and breaking his heart.” —Publishers Weekly (starred review) “A book full of both literary grace and hard-won world-weariness.” —Kirkus Back in his broken hometown, Pulitzer Prize-winning journalist Charlie LeDuff searches the ruins of Detroit for clues to his family’s troubled past. Having led us on the way up, Detroit now seems to be leading us on the way down. Once the richest city in America, Detroit is now the nation’s poorest. Once the vanguard of America’s machine age—mass-production, blue-collar jobs, and automobiles—Detroit is now America’s capital for unemployment, illiteracy, dropouts, and foreclosures. With the steel-eyed reportage that has become his trademark, and the righteous indignation only a native son possesses, LeDuff sets out to uncover what destroyed his city. He beats on the doors of union bosses and homeless squatters, powerful businessmen and struggling homeowners and the ordinary people holding the city together by sheer determination. Detroit: An American Autopsy is an unbelievable story of a hard town in a rough time filled with some of the strangest and strongest people our country has to offer.

Redevelopment and Race

Author : June Manning Thomas
Publisher : Wayne State University Press
ISBN 13 : 0814339085
Total Pages : 314 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (143 download)

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Book Synopsis Redevelopment and Race by : June Manning Thomas

Download or read book Redevelopment and Race written by June Manning Thomas and published by Wayne State University Press. This book was released on 2013-04-15 with total page 314 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the decades following World War II, professional city planners in Detroit made a concerted effort to halt the city's physical and economic decline. Their successes included an award-winning master plan, a number of laudable redevelopment projects, and exemplary planning leadership in the city and the nation. Yet despite their efforts, Detroit was rapidly transforming into a notorious symbol of urban decay. In Redevelopment and Race: Planning a Finer City in Postwar Detroit, June Manning Thomas takes a look at what went wrong, demonstrating how and why government programs were ineffective and even destructive to community needs. In confronting issues like housing shortages, blight in older areas, and changing economic conditions, Detroit's city planners worked during the urban renewal era without much consideration for low-income and African American residents, and their efforts to stabilize racially mixed neighborhoods faltered as well. Steady declines in industrial prowess and the constant decentralization of white residents counteracted planners' efforts to rebuild the city. Among the issues Thomas discusses in this volume are the harmful impacts of Detroit's highways, the mixed record of urban renewal projects like Lafayette Park, the effects of the 1967 riots on Detroit's ability to plan, the city-building strategies of Coleman Young (the city's first black mayor) and his mayoral successors, and the evolution of Detroit's federally designated Empowerment Zone. Examining the city she knew first as an undergraduate student at Michigan State University and later as a scholar and planner, Thomas ultimately argues for a different approach to traditional planning that places social justice, equity, and community ahead of purely physical and economic objectives. Redevelopment and Race was originally published in 1997 and was given the Paul Davidoff Award from the Association of Collegiate Schools of Planning in 1999. Students and teachers of urban planning will be grateful for this re-release. A new postscript offers insights into changes since 1997.

Toxic Debt

Author : Josiah Rector
Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 1469665778
Total Pages : 345 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (696 download)

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Book Synopsis Toxic Debt by : Josiah Rector

Download or read book Toxic Debt written by Josiah Rector and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2022-02-17 with total page 345 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the mid-nineteenth until the mid-twentieth century, environmentally unregulated industrial capitalism produced outsized environmental risks for poor and working-class Detroiters, made all the worse for African Americans by housing and job discrimination. Then as the auto industry abandoned Detroit, the banking and real estate industries turned those risks into disasters with predatory loans to African American homebuyers, and to an increasingly indebted city government. Following years of cuts in welfare assistance to poor families and a devastating subprime mortgage meltdown, the state of Michigan used municipal debt to justify suspending democracy in majority-Black cities. In Detroit and Flint, austerity policies imposed under emergency financial management deprived hundreds of thousands of people of clean water, with lethal consequences that most recently exacerbated the spread of COVID-19. Toxic Debt is not only a book about racism, capitalism, and the making of these environmental disasters. It is also a history of Detroit's environmental justice movement, which emerged from over a century of battles over public health in the city and involved radical auto workers, ecofeminists, and working-class women fighting for clean water. Linking the histories of urban political economy, the environment, and social movements, Toxic Debt lucidly narrates the story of debt, environmental disaster, and resistance in Detroit.

Detroit 1967

Author : Joel Stone
Publisher : Wayne State University Press
ISBN 13 : 081434304X
Total Pages : 348 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (143 download)

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Book Synopsis Detroit 1967 by : Joel Stone

Download or read book Detroit 1967 written by Joel Stone and published by Wayne State University Press. This book was released on 2017-06-05 with total page 348 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the summer of 1967, Detroit experienced one of the worst racially charged civil disturbances in United States history. Years of frustration generated by entrenched and institutionalized racism boiled over late on a hot July night. In an event that has been called a “riot,” “rebellion,” “uprising,” and “insurrection,” thousands of African Americans took to the street for several days of looting, arson, and gunfire. Law enforcement was overwhelmed, and it wasn’t until battle-tested federal troops arrived that the city returned to some semblance of normalcy. Fifty years later, native Detroiters cite this event as pivotal in the city’s history, yet few completely understand what happened, why it happened, or how it continues to affect the city today. Discussions of the events are often rife with misinformation and myths, and seldom take place across racial lines. It is editor Joel Stone’s intention with Detroit 1967: Origins, Impacts, Legacies to draw memories, facts, and analysis together to create a broader context for these conversations. In order to tell a more complete story, Detroit 1967 starts at the beginning with colonial slavery along the Detroit River and culminates with an examination of the state of race relations today and suggestions for the future. Readers are led down a timeline that features chapters discussing the critical role that unfree people played in establishing Detroit, the path that postwar manufacturers within the city were taking to the suburbs and eventually to other states, as well as the widely held untruth that all white people wanted to abandon Detroit after 1967. Twenty contributors, from journalists like Tim Kiska, Bill McGraw, and Desiree Cooper to historians like DeWitt S. Dykes, Danielle L. McGuire, and Kevin Boyle, have individually created a rich body of work on Detroit and race, that is compiled here in a well-rounded, accessible volume. Detroit 1967 aims to correct fallacies surrounding the events that took place and led up to the summer of 1967 in Detroit, and to encourage informed discussion around this topic. Readers of Detroit history and urban studies will be drawn to and enlightened by these powerful essays.

Whose Detroit?

Author : Heather Ann Thompson
Publisher : Cornell University Press
ISBN 13 : 1501702017
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis Whose Detroit? by : Heather Ann Thompson

Download or read book Whose Detroit? written by Heather Ann Thompson and published by Cornell University Press. This book was released on 2015-06-09 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: America's urbanites have engaged in many tumultuous struggles for civil and worker rights since the Second World War. In Whose Detroit?, Heather Ann Thompson focuses in detail on the struggles of Motor City residents during the 1960s and early 1970s and finds that conflict continued to plague the inner city and its workplaces even after Great Society liberals committed themselves to improving conditions. Using the contested urban center of Detroit as a model, Thompson assesses the role of such upheaval in shaping the future of America's cities. She argues that the glaring persistence of injustice and inequality led directly to explosions of unrest in this period. Thompson finds that unrest as dramatic as that witnessed during Detroit's infamous riot of 1967 by no means doomed the inner city, nor in any way sealed its fate. The politics of liberalism continued to serve as a catalyst for both polarization and radical new possibilities and Detroit remained a contested, and thus politically vibrant, urban center. Thompson's account of the post-World War II fate of Detroit casts new light on contemporary urban issues, including white flight, police brutality, civic and shop floor rebellion, labor decline, and the dramatic reshaping of the American political order. Throughout, the author tells the stories of real events and individuals, including James Johnson, Jr., who, after years of suffering racial discrimination in Detroit's auto industry, went on trial in 1971 for the shooting deaths of two foremen and another worker at a Chrysler plant. Bringing the labor movement into the context of the literature of Sixties radicalism, Whose Detroit? integrates the history of the 1960s into the broader political history of the postwar period. Urban, labor, political, and African-American history are blended into Thompson's comprehensive portrayal of Detroit's reaction to pressures felt throughout the nation. With deft attention to the historical background and preoccupations of Detroit's residents, Thompson has written a biography of an entire city at a time of crisis.

A People's History of Detroit

Author : Mark Jay
Publisher : Duke University Press
ISBN 13 : 1478009357
Total Pages : 188 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (78 download)

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Book Synopsis A People's History of Detroit by : Mark Jay

Download or read book A People's History of Detroit written by Mark Jay and published by Duke University Press. This book was released on 2020-04-17 with total page 188 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Recent bouts of gentrification and investment in Detroit have led some to call it the greatest turnaround story in American history. Meanwhile, activists point to the city's cuts to public services, water shutoffs, mass foreclosures, and violent police raids. In A People's History of Detroit, Mark Jay and Philip Conklin use a class framework to tell a sweeping story of Detroit from 1913 to the present, embedding Motown's history in a global economic context. Attending to the struggle between corporate elites and radical working-class organizations, Jay and Conklin outline the complex sociopolitical dynamics underlying major events in Detroit's past, from the rise of Fordism and the formation of labor unions, to deindustrialization and the city's recent bankruptcy. They demonstrate that Detroit's history is not a tale of two cities—one of wealth and development and another racked by poverty and racial violence; rather it is the story of a single Detroit that operates according to capitalism's mandates.

Detroit’s Birwood Wall: Hatred & Healing in the West Eight Mile Community

Author : Gerald Van Dusen
Publisher : Arcadia Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1467142018
Total Pages : 192 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (671 download)

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Book Synopsis Detroit’s Birwood Wall: Hatred & Healing in the West Eight Mile Community by : Gerald Van Dusen

Download or read book Detroit’s Birwood Wall: Hatred & Healing in the West Eight Mile Community written by Gerald Van Dusen and published by Arcadia Publishing. This book was released on 2019 with total page 192 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In 1941, a real estate developer in northwest Detroit faced a dilemma. He needed federal financing for white clients purchasing lots in a new subdivision abutting a community of mostly African Americans. When the banks deemed the development too risky because of potential racial tension, the developer proposed a novel solution. He built a six-foot-tall, one-foot-thick concrete barrier extending from Eight Mile Road south for three city blocks--the infamous Birwood Wall. It changed life in West Eight Mile forever. Gathering personal interviews, family histories, land records and other archival sources, author Gerald Van Dusen tells the story of this isolated black enclave that persevered through all manner of racial barriers and transformed a symbol of discrimination into an expression of hope and perseverance.

Assembling a Black Counter Culture

Author : Deforrest Brown
Publisher : Primary Information
ISBN 13 : 9781734489736
Total Pages : 80 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (897 download)

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Book Synopsis Assembling a Black Counter Culture by : Deforrest Brown

Download or read book Assembling a Black Counter Culture written by Deforrest Brown and published by Primary Information. This book was released on 2020-11-10 with total page 80 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this critical history, DeForrest Brown, Jr "makes techno Black again" by tracing the music's origins in Detroit and beyond In Assembling a Black Counter Culture, writer and musician DeForrest Brown, Jr, provides a history and critical analysis of techno and adjacent electronic music such as house and electro, showing how the genre has been shaped over time by a Black American musical sensibility. Brown revisits Detroit's 1980s techno scene to highlight pioneering groups like the Belleville Three before jumping into the origins of today's international club floor to draw important connections between industrialized labor systems and cultural production. Among the other musicians discussed are Underground Resistance (Mad Mike Banks, Cornelius Harris), Drexciya, Juan Atkins (Cybotron, Model 500), Derrick May, Jeff Mills, Robert Hood, Detroit Escalator Co. (Neil Ollivierra), DJ Stingray/Urban Tribe, Eddie Fowlkies, Terrence Dixon (Population One) and Carl Craig. With references to Theodore Roszak's Making of a Counter Culture, writings by African American autoworker and political activist James Boggs, and the "techno rebels" of Alvin Toffler's Third Wave, Brown approaches techno's unique history from a Black theoretical perspective in an effort to evade and subvert the racist and classist status quo in the mainstream musical-historical record. The result is a compelling case to "make techno Black again." DeForrest Brown, Jris a New York-based theorist, journalist and curator. He produces digital audio and extended media as Speaker Music and is a representative of the Make Techno Black Again campaign.

Detroit Is No Dry Bones

Author : Camilo J. Vergara
Publisher : University of Michigan Press
ISBN 13 : 0472130110
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (721 download)

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Book Synopsis Detroit Is No Dry Bones by : Camilo J. Vergara

Download or read book Detroit Is No Dry Bones written by Camilo J. Vergara and published by University of Michigan Press. This book was released on 2016-11-16 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A photographic record of almost three decades of Detroit's changing urban fabric

Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945

Author : Beth Tompkins Bates
Publisher : Univ of North Carolina Press
ISBN 13 : 9780807875360
Total Pages : 304 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (753 download)

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Book Synopsis Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 by : Beth Tompkins Bates

Download or read book Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 written by Beth Tompkins Bates and published by Univ of North Carolina Press. This book was released on 2003-01-14 with total page 304 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Between World War I and World War II, African Americans' quest for civil rights took on a more aggressive character as a new group of black activists challenged the politics of civility traditionally embraced by old-guard leaders in favor of a more forceful protest strategy. Beth Tompkins Bates traces the rise of this new protest politics--which was grounded in making demands and backing them up with collective action--by focusing on the struggle of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters (BSCP) to form a union in Chicago, headquarters of the Pullman Company. Bates shows how the BSCP overcame initial opposition from most of Chicago's black leaders by linking its union message with the broader social movement for racial equality. As members of BSCP protest networks mobilized the black community around the quest for manhood rights and economic freedom, they broke down resistance to organized labor even as they expanded the boundaries of citizenship to include equal economic opportunity. By the mid-1930s, BSCP protest networks gained platforms at the national level, fusing Brotherhood activities first with those of the National Negro Congress and later with the March on Washington Movement. Lessons learned during this era guided the next generation of activists, who carried the black freedom struggle forward after World War II.