Biomarkers And Immunotherapy For Genitourinary Tumors

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Biomarkers and Immunotherapy for Genitourinary Tumors

Author : Hui Dai
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2832547109
Total Pages : 374 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (325 download)

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Book Synopsis Biomarkers and Immunotherapy for Genitourinary Tumors by : Hui Dai

Download or read book Biomarkers and Immunotherapy for Genitourinary Tumors written by Hui Dai and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2024-04-02 with total page 374 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Genitourinary tumors consist of a large variety of malignancies located in the urinary and the reproductive systems, mainly including prostate cancer, bladder cancer, and renal tumors. Apart from surgeries, various systemic treatments have been used for the whole-course management of genitourinary tumors, including radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and hormonal therapy. However, the characteristics of progression, metastasis, and drug resistance deriving from tumors require and breed novel treatments. Furthermore, exploring biomarkers of genitourinary tumors at the early stage is also beneficial to strengthen the management of patients with tumors. Additionally, the diagnostic and prognostic value of the potential biomarkers for immunotherapy and combined therapy of genitourinary tumors are underexplored. On the basis of precision treatments, the advent of immune-based therapies, including immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs, antibodies targeting PD-L1 /PD-1 and CTLA-4 pathways), tumor vaccines, and other therapies, has extended the scope of treatment modalities. FDA has until now approved the clinical application of immune checkpoint inhibitors in a wide range of diseases including some types of genitourinary tumors, whereas not all patients with genitourinary tumors are suitable for immune-based therapies, therefore, the understanding of its underlying mechanism is key to develop effective treatments based on current ICI-based immunotherapy.

Neoadjuvant Immunotherapy Treatment of Localized Genitourinary Cancers

Author : Andrea Necchi
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030805468
Total Pages : 312 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

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Book Synopsis Neoadjuvant Immunotherapy Treatment of Localized Genitourinary Cancers by : Andrea Necchi

Download or read book Neoadjuvant Immunotherapy Treatment of Localized Genitourinary Cancers written by Andrea Necchi and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2022-01-03 with total page 312 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book aims to provide readers with a current overview of enrolling trials with immune-checkpoint inhibitors in the preoperative setting of localized bladder cancer, renal cell carcinoma, and prostate cancer. The advent of immunotherapy has revolutionized treatments of genitourinary malignancy and evolved strategies for multidisciplinary management. This book explains neoadjuvant checkpoint inhibitors in localized genitourinary cancers, providing insights into the mechanisms of response and development of resistance of cancer cells to immunotherapy. It debates optimal trial design of preoperative checkpoint inhibitors in GU tumors, including optimal endpoints and the role of pathologic response as a surrogate endpoint of survival. It also illuminates clinical management of patients with organ-confined GU tumors, such as side effect management and perioperative safety, before providing an overview of biomarker use for patient selection across the early-stage GU malignancies. Lastly, the book provides the reader with the most up-to-date data emerging from clinical trials involving immunotherapy in early-stage GU malignancies. Neoadjuvant Immunotherapy Treatment of Localized Genitourinary Cancers: Multidisciplinary Management provides a comprehensive review of the field, serving as a valuable resource for urologists, medical oncologists, pathologists, fellows in urologic oncology, upper-level residents training in urology and medical oncology, as well as pharmacists interested in RCC clinicians.

Emerging Biomarkers in Personalized Therapy of Urologic Tumors

Author : Rodolfo Montironi
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2889459292
Total Pages : 79 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (894 download)

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Book Synopsis Emerging Biomarkers in Personalized Therapy of Urologic Tumors by : Rodolfo Montironi

Download or read book Emerging Biomarkers in Personalized Therapy of Urologic Tumors written by Rodolfo Montironi and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2019-07-31 with total page 79 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The identification of effective biomarkers has becoming a major focus in cancer research, mainly due to the necessity of selecting potentially responsive patients in order to improve their outcomes, as well as to reduce the toxicity and costs related to ineffective treatments. In genitourinary tumors, the lack of biomarkers does not allow for the development of personalized strategies for a single patient, thus representing a major goal in this field. This eBook includes the description of these emerging techniques and identify the most promising biomarkers in genitourinary tumors.

Biomarkers in Genitourinary Cancers, Volume II

Author : Riccardo Tellini
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2832505376
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (325 download)

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Book Synopsis Biomarkers in Genitourinary Cancers, Volume II by : Riccardo Tellini

Download or read book Biomarkers in Genitourinary Cancers, Volume II written by Riccardo Tellini and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2022-11-14 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Biomarkers in Genitourinary Cancers: Volume I

Author : Eric A. Singer
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2889762157
Total Pages : 226 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (897 download)

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Book Synopsis Biomarkers in Genitourinary Cancers: Volume I by : Eric A. Singer

Download or read book Biomarkers in Genitourinary Cancers: Volume I written by Eric A. Singer and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2022-05-25 with total page 226 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Genitourinary Cancers

Author : Siamak Daneshmand
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319933396
Total Pages : 308 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (199 download)

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Book Synopsis Genitourinary Cancers by : Siamak Daneshmand

Download or read book Genitourinary Cancers written by Siamak Daneshmand and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-08-31 with total page 308 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book addresses the most pressing current questions in the management of urologic malignancies. The rapid advances in imaging and molecular markers are placed into a clinical context, with explanation of their effects on prognosis and treatment planning. Similarly, progress in immunotherapy is carefully examined, focusing in particular on the role of immune checkpoint inhibitors in both early- and late-stage urologic malignancies. Looking beyond the improvements in minimally invasive techniques for urologic cancers, the impacts of care coordination pathways and enhanced recovery after surgery protocols are reviewed. Readers will also find enlightening discussion of the decision algorithm for the treatment of early-stage, high-grade bladder cancer, taking into account evidence on the most advanced treatment options and the circumstances in which surgery may need to be expedited. The penultimate chapter discusses the Cancer Genome Atlas project for bladder cancer, and the book closes by considering contemporary medical and surgical management of testicular cancer.

Cancer Immunotherapy in Urology, An Issue of Urologic Clinics, E-Book

Author : Sujit S Nair
Publisher : Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN 13 : 0323754996
Total Pages : 145 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (237 download)

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Book Synopsis Cancer Immunotherapy in Urology, An Issue of Urologic Clinics, E-Book by : Sujit S Nair

Download or read book Cancer Immunotherapy in Urology, An Issue of Urologic Clinics, E-Book written by Sujit S Nair and published by Elsevier Health Sciences. This book was released on 2020-10-15 with total page 145 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Guest Editors of this issue of Urologic Clinics of North America have put together a comprehensive collection of articles that provides the current knowledge on urologic cancer immunotherapy. Expert authors have contributed clinical review articles on the following topics: Era of personalized vaccines for GU cancers; TCR and dendritic vaccine platforms for GU cancers; Neo-adjuvant platforms for GU cancer immunotherapy; Immune-editing in Cancer: Role of tumor microenvironment and immune-suppressive pathways in localized and aggressive disease; Clinical integration of neo-adjuvant platforms for prostate cancer immunotherapy; Immunotherapy for muscle and non-muscle invasive bladder cancer: BCG and beyond; Immunotherapy for metastatic bladder cancer; Immunotherapy options for metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer; Role of tissue infiltrating lymphocytes: Understanding TCR; Therapeutic platforms for IPSC-derived CAR-T; Immune-suppression in prostate cancer: Underlying causes and influence on response to immunotherapy; and Racial disparity in response to immunotherapy. Urologists will come away with the most current information they need to improve outcomes in the urologic cancer patient.

Biomarkers in Urologic Cancer, An Issue of Urologic Clinics of North America

Author : Kevin R. Loughlin
Publisher : Elsevier Health Sciences
ISBN 13 : 0323417191
Total Pages : 169 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (234 download)

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Book Synopsis Biomarkers in Urologic Cancer, An Issue of Urologic Clinics of North America by : Kevin R. Loughlin

Download or read book Biomarkers in Urologic Cancer, An Issue of Urologic Clinics of North America written by Kevin R. Loughlin and published by Elsevier Health Sciences. This book was released on 2016-01-19 with total page 169 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The past decade has been marked by the acceleration of our understanding of the molecular biology of cancer. Simultaneously, there have been increasing exigencies to diagnose, treat and follow cancer patients more economically. Biomarkers represent the marriage of science and economics. Biomarkers offer the potential to increase the precision of diagnosis, prognosis, and surveillance of urological malignancies. This issue presents the cutting-edge advances of biomarker technology to urologic oncology.

Identification of Biomarkers for Cancer Immunotherapy: From Bench to Bedside, volume I

Author : Chang Gu
Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2832529275
Total Pages : 191 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (325 download)

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Book Synopsis Identification of Biomarkers for Cancer Immunotherapy: From Bench to Bedside, volume I by : Chang Gu

Download or read book Identification of Biomarkers for Cancer Immunotherapy: From Bench to Bedside, volume I written by Chang Gu and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2023-10-20 with total page 191 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: During the past few decades, immunotherapy has become an established pillar of cancer treatment improving the survival of numerous patients with diverse solid and hematologic tumors. The leading causes behind the success are the discovery of immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICIs) and the development of chimeric antigen receptor (CAR) T/M/NK cells. As for ICIs, malignancies take advantage of the inhibitory programmed cell death protein 1/programmed cell death protein ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) or cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated protein (CTLA-4) pathways to evade the immune system, and disruption of the axis by immune checkpoint inhibitors can achieve durable disease remissions, which has been proved by basic researches and (pre-) clinical studies among lung cancer, melanoma, renal cell cancer, head, and neck squamous cell carcinoma, urothelial cancer, and Hodgkin’s disease. However, the 5-year survival rate of patients treated with ICIs varies with each individual and also relies on tumor specific pathological or molecular subtypes. Besides, the efficacy of ICIs is still limited in terms of drug resistance and fewer potential responders. Thus, there is a big challenge to identify and develop more novel reliable ICIs, as well as sensibilize existing ICIs for patients with drug resistance or even for non-responders.

Immunological Implications and Molecular Diagnostics of Genitourinary Cancer

Author : Moulay Mustapha Ennaji
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0323854974
Total Pages : 500 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (238 download)

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Book Synopsis Immunological Implications and Molecular Diagnostics of Genitourinary Cancer by : Moulay Mustapha Ennaji

Download or read book Immunological Implications and Molecular Diagnostics of Genitourinary Cancer written by Moulay Mustapha Ennaji and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2022-10-07 with total page 500 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Immunological Implications and Molecular Diagnostics of Genitourinary Cancer updates on recent accomplishments, unifying concepts, and future challenges in the study of tumor-associated immune cells, emphasizing genitourinary cancers. The presence of inflammatory immune cells in human tumors raise a fundamental question: How do cancer cells avoid destruction by immune attack? In principle, tumor development can be controlled by cytotoxic innate and adaptive immune cells, however, as tumors develop from neoplastic tissue to clinically detectable tumors, cancer cells evolve different mechanisms. This book covers research on the immunological implications of genitourinary cancer with a comprehensive view, especially surrounding diagnosis and cellular mechanisms. Discusses the impact of the immune system on the initiation, progression and treatment of cancer Provides insights on the important role of the suppressor genes and oncogenes in genitourinary cancers Shows the advantages of combining clinical issues of urologic cancers with immunological techniques, like immunohistochemistry and immunofluorescence Demonstrates the implications genitourinary cancer has on the human innate immune system

Immunotherapy

Author : Aung Naing
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030410080
Total Pages : 339 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (34 download)

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Book Synopsis Immunotherapy by : Aung Naing

Download or read book Immunotherapy written by Aung Naing and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-04-16 with total page 339 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Immunotherapy is a rapidly evolving field that mandates frequent revision of the book as new insights to fight cancer emerge. The third edition of Immunotherapy is an updated overview of immuno-oncology in different cancer types and toxicities associated with immunotherapy. It explores the breath of immunotherapeutic strategies available to treat a wide range of cancers, from melanoma and non-small cell lung cancer to gastrointestinal, genitourinary, gynecologic and nervous system malignancies. With increasing use of checkpoint inhibitors as standard of care and in clinical trials, the challenges associated with their use undoubtedly increase. As objective response is limited to a subset of patients and is often associated with distinct immune related side effects that are potentially life threatening, it is essential to identify patients who are likely to respond to immunotherapy and those who are at a risk for developing treatment-related side effects. In the absence of a validated predictive biomarker, innovative technologies and assays are being used to identify critical biomarkers that drive the immune response. Hence, a chapter to provide a basic understanding of the diagnostic procedures has been included besides the chapter on the cellular components of the human immune system. This new edition will also inform readers on use of novel microbiome and imaging approaches. Finally, the book includes a chapter on patient-reported outcomes in patients treated with immunotherapies as the authors recognize the importance of including missing patient voice in clinical trials and longitudinal assessment of symptom reports. In short, the third edition of this book provides a comprehensive overview of the latest developments in the field of immune-oncology that will help health care professionals make informed treatment decisions. The book’s chapters are written by a diverse cast of experts conducting cutting-edge research, providing the reader with the most up-to-date science.

The Basics of Cancer Immunotherapy

Author : Haidong Dong
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3031594754
Total Pages : 228 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (315 download)

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Book Synopsis The Basics of Cancer Immunotherapy by : Haidong Dong

Download or read book The Basics of Cancer Immunotherapy written by Haidong Dong and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on with total page 228 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Cancer Immunotherapy Principles and Practice, Second Edition

Author : Lisa H. Butterfield, PhD
Publisher : Springer Publishing Company
ISBN 13 : 0826137431
Total Pages : 1339 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (261 download)

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Book Synopsis Cancer Immunotherapy Principles and Practice, Second Edition by : Lisa H. Butterfield, PhD

Download or read book Cancer Immunotherapy Principles and Practice, Second Edition written by Lisa H. Butterfield, PhD and published by Springer Publishing Company. This book was released on 2021-08-25 with total page 1339 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Thoroughly updated to reflect major advances in the field of immuno-oncology, this second edition of Cancer Immunotherapy Principles and Practice, from the Society for Immunotherapy of Cancer (SITC), remains the definitive resource for information on tumor immunology and cancer immunotherapy treatments. An essential reference for both novice and experienced cancer researchers, oncologists, and related practitioners alike, the book not only guides readers through the fundamental scientific principles of the field all the way to translational and practical clinical applications for treating and managing oncologic disease, but also provides a comprehensive understanding of the regulatory processes that support the safe and effective delivery of immunotherapy to patients with cancer. The expanded and updated second edition now spans 68 chapters, including 12 new chapters, covering major topics and innovations that have shaped the rapid development of immunotherapy and its ascension into the standard of care as first-line treatment for a growing number of disease settings. New to this edition are chapters with deeper insight into our understanding of cancer genomics and determinants of response, immunogenic cell death, cancer and stromal cell-intrinsic pathways of immune resistance, cancer immune exclusion, adoptive cell therapy, metabolomics, tumor mutation burden, immunotherapy in combination with radiation therapy, synthetic biology, and more. Complete with detailed illustrations, tables, and key points for targeted reference, Cancer Immunotherapy Principles and Practice, Second Edition is the most comprehensive and authoritative resource for scientists and clinicians looking to expand their knowledge base of this dynamic field. Key Features: Offers key insights and perspectives on cancer immunology and immunotherapy treatments from renowned experts in the field Covers the basic principles and science behind cancer immunotherapy and tumor immunology Includes treatment strategies for a vast array of available immunotherapy classes and agents, such as cytokine therapies, oncolytic viruses, cancer vaccines, CAR T therapies, and combination immunotherapies Provides essential information on FDA-approved immunotherapies, including clinical management and outcome data related to response rates, risks, and toxicities Discusses special considerations for immunotherapy in the context of specific disease settings, including skin cancers, genitourinary cancers, gastrointestinal cancers, hepatocellular carcinomas, gynecologic malignancies, breast cancers, lung cancers, head and neck cancers, brain tumors, sarcomas, pediatric cancers, and treatments combined with radiation therapy Clarifies the complex regulatory aspects behind the development and approval of immunotherapy drugs

Adaptive Immunity in Genitourinary Cancers

Author : Madhuri Koti
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (138 download)

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Book Synopsis Adaptive Immunity in Genitourinary Cancers by : Madhuri Koti

Download or read book Adaptive Immunity in Genitourinary Cancers written by Madhuri Koti and published by . This book was released on 2023 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract: Context While urothelial and renal cell cancers have exhibited modest responses to novel immune checkpoint inhibitors targeting the programmed death ligand 1 and its receptor, response rates in patients with prostate cancer have remained poor. The factors underlying suboptimal outcomes observed in patients treated with novel immunotherapies are still to be resolved. Objective To review the literature and describe the key adaptive immune physiological events associated with cancer progression and therapeutic response in genitourinary (GU) cancers. Evidence acquisition We performed a nonsystematic, collaborative narrative review to highlight recent advancements leading to the current state of knowledge on the critical mediators of antitumor adaptive immunity to GU cancers. Further, we discuss the findings on the pre- and post-treatment immunological events that either are unique to each of the three cancer types or exhibit overlapping clinical associations. Evidence synthesis Aging-associated immune function decline is a major factor underlying poor outcomes observed in patients treated with both conventional and novel immunotherapies. Other cancer immunobiological aspects associated with suboptimal responses in GU cancers include the overall tumor mutational burden, mutations in specific tumor suppressor/DNA damage repair genes (KDM6A, PTEN, STAG2, TP53, ATM, and BRCA2), and abundance of multiple functional states of adaptive immune cells and their spatiotemporal localization within the tumor immune microenvironment. Understanding these mechanisms may potentially lead to the development of prognostic and predictive biomarkers such as immune cell infiltration profiles and tertiary lymphoid structures (TLSs) that associate with variable clinical outcomes depending on the nature of the novel immunotherapeutic approach. Implementation of newer immune-monitoring technologies and improved preclinical modeling systems will augment our understanding of the host and tumor intrinsic factors contributing to the variability of responses to immunotherapies. Conclusions Despite the tremendous progress made in the understanding of dynamic and static adaptive immune elements within the tumor immune landscape, several knowledge gaps remain. A comprehensive knowledge thus gained will lead to precision immunotherapy, improved drug sequencing, and a therapeutic response. Patient summary We performed a collaborative review by a diverse group of experts in the field to examine our understanding of the events and crosstalk between cancer cells and the patient's immune system that are associated with responses to novel immunotherapies. An evolving understanding of tumor-intrinsic and host-related immune alterations, both before and after therapy, will aid in the discovery of promising markers of responses to immunotherapy as well as the development of unique therapeutic approaches for the management of genitourinary cancers

Biomarkers for Immunotherapy of Cancer

Author : Magdalena Thurin
Publisher : Humana
ISBN 13 : 9781493997725
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (977 download)

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Book Synopsis Biomarkers for Immunotherapy of Cancer by : Magdalena Thurin

Download or read book Biomarkers for Immunotherapy of Cancer written by Magdalena Thurin and published by Humana. This book was released on 2019-09-10 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides the immune oncology (IO) community with a deeper understanding of the scope of the biomarker methods to potentially improve the outcome from immunotherapy. The editors secured the input from experts in the field dedicated to translating scientific research from bench to bedside was submitted. The book provides not only details about the technical, standardization and interpretation aspects of the methods but also introduces the reader to the background information and scientific justification for selected biomarkers and assays. Written in the highly successful Methods in Molecular Biology series format, chapters include introductions to their respective topics, lists of the necessary materials and reagents, step-by-step, readily reproducible laboratory protocols, and tips on troubleshooting and avoiding known pitfalls.

Tumor Microenvironments in Organs

Author : Alexander Birbrair
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030362140
Total Pages : 155 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (33 download)

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Book Synopsis Tumor Microenvironments in Organs by : Alexander Birbrair

Download or read book Tumor Microenvironments in Organs written by Alexander Birbrair and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-02-06 with total page 155 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Revealing essential roles of the tumor microenvironment in cancer progression, this book provides a comprehensive overview of the latest research on the tumor microenvironment in over thirty human organs, including the parathyroid gland, heart, intestine, testicles, and more. Taken alongside its companion volumes, these books update us on what we know about the different aspects of the tumor microenvironments in distinct organs as well as future directions. Tumor Microenvironments in Organs: From the Brain to the Skin – Part A is essential reading for advanced cell biology and cancer biology students as well as researchers seeking an update on research in the tumor microenvironment.

Regulation of Cancer Immune Checkpoints

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9789811532672
Total Pages : 657 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (326 download)

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Book Synopsis Regulation of Cancer Immune Checkpoints by :

Download or read book Regulation of Cancer Immune Checkpoints written by and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 657 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book systematically reviews the most important findings on cancer immune checkpoints, sharing essential insights into this rapidly evolving yet largely unexplored research topic. The past decade has seen major advances in cancer immune checkpoint therapy, which has demonstrated impressive clinical benefits. The family of checkpoints for mediating cancer immune evasion now includes CTLA-4, PD-1/PD-L1, CD27/CD70, FGL-1/LAG-3, Siglec-15, VISTA (PD-1L)/VSIG3, CD47/SIRPA, APOE/LILRB4, TIGIT, and many others. Despite these strides, most patients do not show lasting remission, and some cancers have been completely resistant to the therapy. The potentially lethal adverse effects of checkpoint blockade represent another major challenge, the mechanisms of which remain poorly understood. Compared to the cancer signaling pathways, such as p53 and Ras, mechanistic studies on immune checkpoint pathways are still in their infancy. To improve the responses to checkpoint blockade therapy and limit the adverse effects, it is essential to understand the molecular regulation of checkpoint molecules in both malignant and healthy cells/tissues. This book begins with an introduction to immune checkpoint therapy and its challenges, and subsequently describes the regulation of checkpoints at different levels. In closing, it discusses recent therapeutic developments based on mechanistic findings, and outlines goals for future translational studies. The book offers a valuable resource for researchers in the cancer immunotherapy field, helping to form a roadmap for checkpoint regulation and develop safer and more effective immunotherapies.