Authoritarian Neoliberalism

Download Authoritarian Neoliberalism PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 100071246X
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (7 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Authoritarian Neoliberalism by : Ian Bruff

Download or read book Authoritarian Neoliberalism written by Ian Bruff and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2020-06-09 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Authoritarian Neoliberalism explores how neoliberal forms of managing capitalism are challenging democratic governance at local, national and international levels. Identifying a spectrum of policies and practices that seek to reproduce neoliberalism and shield it from popular and democratic contestation, contributors provide original case studies that investigate the legal-administrative, social, coercive and corporate dimensions of authoritarian neoliberalism across the global North and South. They detail the crisis-ridden intertwinement of authoritarian statecraft and neoliberal reforms, and trace the transformation of key societal sites in capitalism (e.g. states, households, workplaces, urban spaces) through uneven yet cumulative processes of neoliberalization. Informed by innovative conceptual and methodological approaches, Authoritarian Neoliberalism uncovers how inequalities of power are produced and reproduced in capitalist societies, and highlights how alternatives to neoliberalism can be formulated and pursued. The book was originally published as a special issue of Globalizations.

States of Discipline

Download States of Discipline PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Rowman & Littlefield
ISBN 13 : 1783486201
Total Pages : 301 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (834 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis States of Discipline by : Cemal Burak Tansel

Download or read book States of Discipline written by Cemal Burak Tansel and published by Rowman & Littlefield. This book was released on 2017-02-08 with total page 301 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite the severity of the global economic crisis and the widespread aversion towards austerity policies, neoliberalism remains the dominant mode of economic governance in the world. What makes neoliberalism such a resilient mode of economic and political governance? How does neoliberalism effectively reproduce itself in the face of popular opposition? States of Discipline offers an answer to these questions by highlighting the ways in which today’s neoliberalism reinforces and relies upon coercive practices that marginalize, discipline and control social groups. Such practices range from the development of market-oriented policies through legal and administrative reforms at the local and national-level, to the coercive apparatuses of the state that repress the social forces that oppose various aspects of neoliberalization. The book argues that these practices are built on the pre-existing infrastructure of neoliberal governance, which strive towards limiting the spaces of popular resistance through a set of administrative, legal and coercive mechanisms. Exploring a range of case studies from across the world, the book uses ‘authoritarian neoliberalism’ as a conceptual prism to shed light on the institutionalization and employment of state practices that invalidate public input and silence popular resistance.

Authoritarian Neoliberalism and Resistance in Turkey

Download Authoritarian Neoliberalism and Resistance in Turkey PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811642133
Total Pages : 246 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (116 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Authoritarian Neoliberalism and Resistance in Turkey by : İmren Borsuk

Download or read book Authoritarian Neoliberalism and Resistance in Turkey written by İmren Borsuk and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-09-29 with total page 246 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book offers new clarity on three important political concepts: authoritarianism, neoliberalism, and resistance. While debates on authoritarian resurgence have been limited to the examination of political factors (e.g., polarisation, conflict) until recently, the rising literature on ‘authoritarian neoliberalism’ highlights how the neoliberal restructuring of political economy bolsters the authoritarian tendencies of elected governments both in the Global South and the Global North. This book will be an invaluable resource not only to scholars of Turkey and the Middle East but also to researchers into authoritarianism and neoliberalism around the world. Chapters 2 and 10 are available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

In the Ruins of Neoliberalism

Download In the Ruins of Neoliberalism PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Columbia University Press
ISBN 13 : 0231550537
Total Pages : 181 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (315 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis In the Ruins of Neoliberalism by : Wendy Brown

Download or read book In the Ruins of Neoliberalism written by Wendy Brown and published by Columbia University Press. This book was released on 2019-07-16 with total page 181 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Across the West, hard-right leaders are surging to power on platforms of ethno-economic nationalism, Christianity, and traditional family values. Is this phenomenon the end of neoliberalism or its monstrous offspring? In the Ruins of Neoliberalism casts the hard-right turn as animated by socioeconomically aggrieved white working- and middle-class populations but contoured by neoliberalism’s multipronged assault on democratic values. From its inception, neoliberalism flirted with authoritarian liberalism as it warred against robust democracy. It repelled social-justice claims through appeals to market freedom and morality. It sought to de-democratize the state, economy, and society and re-secure the patriarchal family. In key works of the founding neoliberal intellectuals, Wendy Brown traces the ambition to replace democratic orders with ones disciplined by markets and traditional morality and democratic states with technocratic ones. Yet plutocracy, white supremacy, politicized mass affect, indifference to truth, and extreme social disinhibition were no part of the neoliberal vision. Brown theorizes their unintentional spurring by neoliberal reason, from its attack on the value of society and its fetish of individual freedom to its legitimation of inequality. Above all, she argues, neoliberalism’s intensification of nihilism coupled with its accidental wounding of white male supremacy generates an apocalyptic populism willing to destroy the world rather than endure a future in which this supremacy disappears.

The Political Economy of Hungary

Download The Political Economy of Hungary PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Palgrave Pivot
ISBN 13 : 9783030105938
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (59 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Political Economy of Hungary by : Adam Fabry

Download or read book The Political Economy of Hungary written by Adam Fabry and published by Palgrave Pivot. This book was released on 2019-04-13 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book explores the political economy of Hungary from the mid-1970s to the present. Widely considered a ‘poster boy’ of neoliberal transformation in post-communist Eastern Europe until the mid-2000s, Hungary has in recent years developed into a model ‘illiberal’ regime. Constitutional checks-and-balances are non-functioning; the independent media, trade unions, and civil society groups are constantly attacked by the authorities; there is widespread intolerance against minorities and refugees; and the governing FIDESZ party, led by Prime Minister Viktor Orbán, controls all public institutions and increasingly large parts of the country’s economy. To make sense of the politico-economical roller coaster that Hungary has experienced in the last four decades, Fabry employs a Marxian political economy approach, emphasising competitive accumulation, class struggle (both between capital and labour, as well as different ‘fractions of capital’), and uneven and combined development. The author analyses the neoliberal transformation of the Hungarian political economy and argues that the drift to authoritarianism under the Orbán regime cannot be explained as a case of Hungarian exceptionalism, but rather represents an outcome of the inherent contradictions of the variety of neoliberalism that emerged in Hungary after 1989.

Regime Change in Turkey

Download Regime Change in Turkey PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000367258
Total Pages : 371 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (3 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Regime Change in Turkey by : Errol Babacan

Download or read book Regime Change in Turkey written by Errol Babacan and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-03-23 with total page 371 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Turkey’s new presidential regime, promoted and shaped by the Justice and Development Party (AKP), has become a global template for rising authoritarianism. Its violence intensifi es the exigency for critical analysis. By focusing on neoliberal authoritarian, hegemonic and Islamist aspects, this book sheds light on long- term dynamics that resulted in the regime transformation. It presents a comprehensive study at a time when rising authoritarianism challenges liberal democracies on a global scale. Reaching from critical political economy and state theory to media, gender and cultural studies, this volume covers a range of studies that transcend disciplinary boundaries. These essays challenge the narrative of an "authoritarian turn" that splits the AKP era into democratic and authoritarian periods. Hence, recent transformation is analyzed in a broad historical framework which is sensitive to both continuities and shifts. Studies that explore moments of resistance and relate the political development in Turkey to rising authoritarianism and the crisis- driven trajectory of neoliberalism on a global scale are included in this effort. Since the advancement of neoliberal policies in conjunction with the religious project that is pushed forward by the AKP suggests that the ongoing transformation may well advance into a more totalitarian regime, this book strives to inform struggles that are trying to resist and reverse this development. By reviewing the dynamics and impacts of recent authoritarian developments, it calls on critical scholars to further seek out potentials and dynamics of opposition in the current authoritarian era.

The Democracy Development Machine

Download The Democracy Development Machine PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cornell University Press
ISBN 13 : 1501736086
Total Pages : 358 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (17 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Democracy Development Machine by : Nicholas Copeland

Download or read book The Democracy Development Machine written by Nicholas Copeland and published by Cornell University Press. This book was released on 2019-05-15 with total page 358 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Nicholas Copeland sheds new light on rural politics in Guatemala and across neoliberal and post-conflict settings in The Democracy Development Machine. This historical ethnography examines how governmentalized spaces of democracy and development fell short, enabling and disfiguring an ethnic Mayan resurgence. In a passionate and politically engaged book, Copeland argues that the transition to democracy in Guatemalan Mayan communities has led to a troubling paradox. He finds that while liberal democracy is celebrated in most of the world as the ideal, it can subvert political desires and channel them into illiberal spaces. As a result, Copeland explores alternative ways of imagining liberal democracy and economic and social amelioration in a traumatized and highly unequal society as it strives to transition from war and authoritarian rule to open elections and free-market democracy.The Democracy Development Machine follows Guatemala's transition, reflects on Mayan involvement in politics during and after the conflict, and provides novel ways to link democratic development with economic and political development. Thanks to generous funding from Virginia Tech and its participation in TOME (Toward an Open Monograph Ecosystem), the ebook editions of this book are available as Open Access (OA) volumes from Cornell Open (cornellpress.cornell.edu/cornell-open) and other Open Access repositories.

The Political Theory of Neoliberalism

Download The Political Theory of Neoliberalism PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Stanford University Press
ISBN 13 : 1503607836
Total Pages : 367 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (36 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Political Theory of Neoliberalism by : Thomas Biebricher

Download or read book The Political Theory of Neoliberalism written by Thomas Biebricher and published by Stanford University Press. This book was released on 2019-02-19 with total page 367 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Neoliberalism has become a dirty word. In political discourse, it stigmatizes a political opponent as a market fundamentalist; in academia, the concept is also mainly wielded by its critics, while those who might be seen as actual neoliberals deny its very existence. Yet the term remains necessary for understanding the varieties of capitalism across space and time. Arguing that neoliberalism is widely misunderstood when reduced to a doctrine of markets and economics alone, this book shows that it has a political dimension that we can reconstruct and critique. Recognizing the heterogeneities within and between both neoliberal theory and practice, The Political Theory of Neoliberalism looks to distinguish between the two as well as to theorize their relationship. By examining the views of state, democracy, science, and politics in the work of six major figures—Eucken, Röpke, Rüstow, Hayek, Friedman, and Buchanan—it offers the first comprehensive account of the varieties of neoliberal political thought. Ordoliberal perspectives, in particular, emerge in a new light. Turning from abstract to concrete, the book also interprets recent neoliberal reforms of the European Union to offer a diagnosis of contemporary capitalism more generally. The latest economic crises hardly brought the neoliberal era to an end. Instead, as Thomas Biebricher shows, we are witnessing an authoritarian liberalism whose reign has only just begun.

Neoliberalism as Exception

Download Neoliberalism as Exception PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Duke University Press
ISBN 13 : 0822387875
Total Pages : 305 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (223 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Neoliberalism as Exception by : Aihwa Ong

Download or read book Neoliberalism as Exception written by Aihwa Ong and published by Duke University Press. This book was released on 2006-07-19 with total page 305 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Neoliberalism is commonly viewed as an economic doctrine that seeks to limit the scope of government. Some consider it a form of predatory capitalism with adverse effects on the Global South. In this groundbreaking work, Aihwa Ong offers an alternative view of neoliberalism as an extraordinarily malleable technology of governing that is taken up in different ways by different regimes, be they authoritarian, democratic, or communist. Ong shows how East and Southeast Asian states are making exceptions to their usual practices of governing in order to position themselves to compete in the global economy. As she demonstrates, a variety of neoliberal strategies of governing are re-engineering political spaces and populations. Ong’s ethnographic case studies illuminate experiments and developments such as China’s creation of special market zones within its socialist economy; pro-capitalist Islam and women’s rights in Malaysia; Singapore’s repositioning as a hub of scientific expertise; and flexible labor and knowledge regimes that span the Pacific. Ong traces how these and other neoliberal exceptions to business as usual are reconfiguring relationships between governing and the governed, power and knowledge, and sovereignty and territoriality. She argues that an interactive mode of citizenship is emerging, one that organizes people—and distributes rights and benefits to them—according to their marketable skills rather than according to their membership within nation-states. Those whose knowledge and skills are not assigned significant market value—such as migrant women working as domestic maids in many Asian cities—are denied citizenship. Nevertheless, Ong suggests that as the seam between sovereignty and citizenship is pried apart, a new space is emerging for NGOs to advocate for the human rights of those excluded by neoliberal measures of human worthiness.

Authoritarianism

Download Authoritarianism PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 022659727X
Total Pages : 131 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (265 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Authoritarianism by : Wendy Brown

Download or read book Authoritarianism written by Wendy Brown and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2018-11-09 with total page 131 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Across the Euro-Atlantic world, political leaders have been mobilizing their bases with nativism, racism, xenophobia, and paeans to “traditional values,” in brazen bids for electoral support. How are we to understand this move to the mainstream of political policies and platforms that lurked only on the far fringes through most of the postwar era? Does it herald a new wave of authoritarianism? Is liberal democracy itself in crisis? In this volume, three distinguished scholars draw on critical theory to address our current predicament. Wendy Brown, Peter E. Gordon, and Max Pensky share a conviction that critical theory retains the power to illuminate the forces producing the current political constellation as well as possible paths away from it. Brown explains how “freedom” has become a rallying cry for manifestly un-emancipatory movements; Gordon dismantles the idea that fascism is rooted in the susceptible psychology of individual citizens and reflects instead on the broader cultural and historical circumstances that lend it force; and Pensky brings together the unlikely pair of Tocqueville and Adorno to explore how democracies can buckle under internal pressure. These incisive essays do not seek to smooth over the irrationality of the contemporary world, and they do not offer the false comforts of an easy return to liberal democratic values. Rather, the three authors draw on their deep engagements with nineteenth–and twentieth–century thought to investigate the historical and political contradictions that have brought about this moment, offering fiery and urgent responses to the demands of the day.

Neoliberal Resilience

Download Neoliberal Resilience PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691182590
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (911 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Neoliberal Resilience by : Aldo Madariaga

Download or read book Neoliberal Resilience written by Aldo Madariaga and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2020-09 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The puzzling resilience of neoliberalism -- Explaining the resilience of neoliberalism -- Neoliberal policies and supporting actors -- Neoliberal resilience and the crafting of social blocs -- Creating support : privatization and business power -- Blocking opposition : political representation and limited democracy -- Locking-in neoliberalism : independent central banks and fiscal spending rules -- Lessons. Neoliberal resilience and the future of democracy.

Destroying Democracy

Download Destroying Democracy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Wits University Press
ISBN 13 : 1776147006
Total Pages : 248 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (761 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Destroying Democracy by : Jane Duncan

Download or read book Destroying Democracy written by Jane Duncan and published by Wits University Press. This book was released on 2021-08-01 with total page 248 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A history of the erosion of democracy across the globe Democracy is being destroyed. This is a crisis that expresses itself in the rising authoritarianism visible in divisive and exclusionary politics, populist political parties and movements, increased distrust in fact-based information and news, and the withering accountability of state institutions. Over the last four decades, democracy has radically shifted to a market democracy in which all aspects of human, non-human and planetary life are commodified, with corporations becoming more powerful than states and their citizens. This is how neoliberal capitalism functions at a systemic level and if left unchecked, is the greatest threat to democracy and a sustainable planet. Volume six of the Democratic Marxism series focuses on how decades of neoliberal capitalism have eroded the global democratic project and how, in the process, authoritarian politics are gaining ground. Scholars and activists from the political left focus on four country cases – India, Brazil, South Africa and the United States of America – in which the COVID-19 pandemic has fuelled and highlighted the pre-existing crisis. They interrogate issues of politics, ecology, state security, media, access to information and political parties, and affirm the need to reclaim and re-build an expansive and inclusive democracy. Destroying Democracy is an invaluable resource for the general public, activists, scholars and students who are interested in understanding the threats to democracy and the rising tide of authoritarianism in the global south and the global north.

A Brief History of Neoliberalism

Download A Brief History of Neoliberalism PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : OUP Oxford
ISBN 13 : 019162294X
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (916 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis A Brief History of Neoliberalism by : David Harvey

Download or read book A Brief History of Neoliberalism written by David Harvey and published by OUP Oxford. This book was released on 2007-01-04 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Neoliberalism - the doctrine that market exchange is an ethic in itself, capable of acting as a guide for all human action - has become dominant in both thought and practice throughout much of the world since 1970 or so. Its spread has depended upon a reconstitution of state powers such that privatization, finance, and market processes are emphasized. State interventions in the economy are minimized, while the obligations of the state to provide for the welfare of its citizens are diminished. David Harvey, author of 'The New Imperialism' and 'The Condition of Postmodernity', here tells the political-economic story of where neoliberalization came from and how it proliferated on the world stage. While Thatcher and Reagan are often cited as primary authors of this neoliberal turn, Harvey shows how a complex of forces, from Chile to China and from New York City to Mexico City, have also played their part. In addition he explores the continuities and contrasts between neoliberalism of the Clinton sort and the recent turn towards neoconservative imperialism of George W. Bush. Finally, through critical engagement with this history, Harvey constructs a framework not only for analyzing the political and economic dangers that now surround us, but also for assessing the prospects for the more socially just alternatives being advocated by many oppositional movements.

The Age of Crisis

Download The Age of Crisis PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030816087
Total Pages : 246 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (38 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Age of Crisis by : Alfredo Saad-Filho

Download or read book The Age of Crisis written by Alfredo Saad-Filho and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2021-09-27 with total page 246 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book offers an analysis of the causes, development, and likely consequences of the Covid-19 pandemic for global neoliberalism. The analysis will draw upon the author’s previous work on neoliberalism, and on its twin crises: the economic crisis (the Global Financial Crisis (GFC), ongoing since 2007) and, subsequently, the crisis of political democracy that has been associated with the rise of ‘spectacular’ authoritarian leaders in several countries. The approach is grounded on Marxist political economy. The book argues that the Covid-19 pandemic emerges out of this context of deep inequalities and crises in the economy and in politics, and it is likely to reinforce the exclusionary tendencies of neoliberalism, with detrimental implications both for economic prosperity and for democracy. In turn, the pandemic has revealed the limitations of neoliberalism like never before, with implications for the legitimacy of capitalism itself, and opening unprecedented spaces for the left. This book will be of interest to academics in economics, international relations, political science, political economy, sociology and development studies.

Authoritarian Contagion

Download Authoritarian Contagion PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Policy Press
ISBN 13 : 1529217792
Total Pages : 184 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (292 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Authoritarian Contagion by : Luke Cooper

Download or read book Authoritarian Contagion written by Luke Cooper and published by Policy Press. This book was released on 2021-06-23 with total page 184 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This innovative book uses examples from around the world to examine the spread of draconian and nationalistic forms of government - ‘authoritarian protectionism’ - which provides new insight into the changing nature of the authoritarian threat to democracy and how it might be overcome.

Media in New Turkey

Download Media in New Turkey PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Illinois Press
ISBN 13 : 9780252081651
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (816 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Media in New Turkey by : Bilge Yesil

Download or read book Media in New Turkey written by Bilge Yesil and published by University of Illinois Press. This book was released on 2016-06-03 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In Media in New Turkey, Bilge Yesil unlocks the complexities surrounding and penetrating today's Turkish media. Yesil focuses on a convergence of global and domestic forces that range from the 1980 military coup to globalization's inroads and the recent resurgence of political Islam. Her analysis foregrounds how these and other forces become intertwined, and she uses Turkey's media to unpack the ever-more-complex relationships. Yesil confronts essential questions regarding: the role of the state and military in building the structures that shaped Turkey's media system; media adaptations to ever-shifting contours of political and economic power; how the far-flung economic interests of media conglomerates leave them vulnerable to state pressure; and the ways Turkey's politicized judiciary criminalizes certain speech. Drawing on local knowledge and a wealth of Turkish sources, Yesil provides an engrossing look at the fault lines carved by authoritarianism, tradition, neoliberal reform, and globalization within Turkey's increasingly far-reaching media.

The Global Rise of Authoritarianism in the 21st Century

Download The Global Rise of Authoritarianism in the 21st Century PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 100017106X
Total Pages : 268 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (1 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Global Rise of Authoritarianism in the 21st Century by : Berch Berberoglu

Download or read book The Global Rise of Authoritarianism in the 21st Century written by Berch Berberoglu and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2020-09-22 with total page 268 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Neoliberal globalization is in deep crisis. This crisis is manifested on a global scale and embodies a number of fundamental contradictions, a central one of which is the global rise of authoritarianism and fascism. This emergent form of authoritarianism is a right-wing reaction to the problems generated by globalization supported and funded by some of the largest and most powerful corporations in their assault against social movements on the left to prevent the emergence of socialism against global capitalism. As the crisis of neoliberal global capitalism unfolds, and as we move to the brink of another economic crisis and the threat of war, global capitalism is once again resorting to authoritarianism and fascism to maintain its power. This book addresses this vital question in comparative-historical perspective and provides a series of case studies around the world that serve as a warning against the impending rise of fascism in the 21st century.