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Assessing The Adaptive Capacity Of Smallholder Cocoa Farmers To Climate Variability In The Adansi South District Of The Ashanti Region Ghana
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Book Synopsis Assessing the Adaptive Capacity of Smallholder Cocoa Farmers to Climate Variability in the Adansi South District of the Ashanti Region, Ghana by : Frank Baffour-Ata
Download or read book Assessing the Adaptive Capacity of Smallholder Cocoa Farmers to Climate Variability in the Adansi South District of the Ashanti Region, Ghana written by Frank Baffour-Ata and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This study assessed the adaptive capacity of smallholder cocoa farmers to climate variability in the Adansi South District of the Ashanti Region, Ghana. The specific objectives were: (i) to assess the perception of the farmers to climate variability; (ii) to determine the perceived effects of climate variability on cocoa production in the district; and; (iii) to evaluate the adaptive capacity of the farmers to manage climate risks. The study used questionnaire surveys with 150 smallholder cocoa farmers, key informant interviews and focus group discussions in three selected communities (Afiaso, Tonkoase and Amudurase). A variety of capital assets (social, financial, human, physical and natural) were utilized to conceptualize smallholder cocoa farmers' adaptive capacity. Smallholder cocoa farmers reported changes in the onset and duration of rains, rising temperature and increasing windstorms as the key variabilities in climate in the selected communities. The farmers perceived increased incidence of drought and cocoa failure, prevalence of diseases and pest invasion and decreased farmer income as the key effects on their cocoa production. Findings also revealed that cumulatively, all the selected communities in Adansi South District had a moderate adaptive capacity (0.531). The study therefore concluded that the smallholder cocoa farmers in Adansi South District of Ghana have a moderate adaptive capacity and recommends that appropriate policies aimed at enhancing the adaptive capacity of the smallholder cocoa farmers must be formulated by policy makers so as to minimize their vulnerabilities to climate risks.
Book Synopsis The Adaptive Capacity of Smallholder Farmers to Climate Change in the Northern Region of Ghana by : Majeed Abdul-Razak
Download or read book The Adaptive Capacity of Smallholder Farmers to Climate Change in the Northern Region of Ghana written by Majeed Abdul-Razak and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Climate Change and Sub-Saharan Africa: The Vulnerability and Adaptation of Food Supply Chain Actors by : John K. M. Kuwornu
Download or read book Climate Change and Sub-Saharan Africa: The Vulnerability and Adaptation of Food Supply Chain Actors written by John K. M. Kuwornu and published by Vernon Press. This book was released on 2019-05-05 with total page 386 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The adverse effects of climate change and climate variability have become some of the biggest environmental and socio-economic challenges for society, and for food supply chain actors, in particular. Serving as a serious inhibitor to the attainment of food security, climate change poses a fundamental threat to the availability, accessibility, stability and utilization of nutritious food and quality drinking water. The threat of this global phenomenon is not only apparent from the difficulties faced by all food supply chain actors, but is also felt acutely by households dependent on semi-subsistence agriculture. As evidenced by numerous studies conducted by the academic community, governmental and non-governmental organisations, climate change and climate variability will have disastrous effects on entire food supply chains across the world. This edited volume looks to address: How vulnerable are food supply chain actors to climate change and climatic variability? What adaptation strategies are they adopting? How is the resilience of food supply chains being supported? Are they being financed and/or supported by international organizations to cope with climate change? And what governmental support are they receiving to help cope with climate change? This book is an essential resource for students, lecturers, researchers, agribusinesses, marketing firms, agricultural institutions, climate change adaptation institutions, policymakers and many others with an interest in agricultural development and the global food industry.
Book Synopsis Climate Change Adaptation in Africa by : Walter Leal Filho
Download or read book Climate Change Adaptation in Africa written by Walter Leal Filho and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-03-27 with total page 746 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This collection showcases experiences from research and field projects in climate change adaptation on the African continent. It includes a set of papers presented at a symposium held in Addis Abeba in February 2016, which brought together international experts to discuss “fostering African resilience and capacity to adapt.” The papers introduce a wide range of methodological approaches and practical case studies to show how climate change adaptation can be implemented in regions and countries across the continent. Responding to the need for more cross-sectoral interaction among the various stakeholders working in the field of climate change adaptation, the book fosters the exchange of information on best practices across the African continent.
Book Synopsis Managing a Changing Climate in Africa by : Pius Z. Yanda
Download or read book Managing a Changing Climate in Africa written by Pius Z. Yanda and published by African Books Collective. This book was released on 2011 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: There is sufficient evidence to support the fact that climate change is occurring and that this is set to accelerate. While some scholars argue that climate change is largely due to natural changes, others postulate that anthropogenic factors are the major cause. Climate change associated with increasing levels of carbon dioxide is likely to affect developed and developing countries differentially, with major vulnerabilities occurring in low-latitude regions. This book presents research findings and case studies with the endeavour to inform policies geared towards addressing problems emanating from these changes. Climate variability raises concerns over the future of agriculture, conditions of land and water availability. Therefore, climate change amplifies many economic and social risks, as well as deterioration of the environment. At the same time, non-climatic risk factors such as economic instability, trade liberalization, conflicts and poor governance all inflict upon vulnerable communities. Key discussions in this title rest on: Climate Change in Africa: its impact on rural communities, vulnerability and adaptation to climate change, financial requirements of reducing green house gases, technological transfer and natural resources; Case Studies of Vulnerability to Climate Change and Variability in Eastern and Southern Africa: experiences of impacts and adaptation to extreme events, concrete experiences from farmers and crop production adaptation; and Challenges and Opportunities to Climate Change Adaptation: factors that influence choice of response strategies, challenges and opportunities for ecosystem-based approaches; and challenges and opportunities from the use of bio-fuels as a mitigation measure to climate change.
Book Synopsis Conflict-sensitive adaptation to climate change in Africa by : Urmilla Bob
Download or read book Conflict-sensitive adaptation to climate change in Africa written by Urmilla Bob and published by BWV Verlag. This book was released on 2014-09-08 with total page 348 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "In preparation for COP17 (17th Conference of the Parties) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC), the African Centre for the Constructive Resolution of Disputes (ACCORD) in Durban, held a two- day expert seminar to identify issues and recommendations for ensuring that adaptation to climate change is conflict-sensitive ...papers presented during the meeting were peer-reviewed and compiled for this pertinent book." -- ACCORD.
Book Synopsis Climate Change and Agriculture in Africa by : Ariel Dinar
Download or read book Climate Change and Agriculture in Africa written by Ariel Dinar and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2012-05-16 with total page 223 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 'This is a well researched, thorough and impressive work on climate change and agriculture in Africa. I recommend it to students, researchers and practitioners working on climate change issues' Jabavu Clifford Nkomo, senior programme specialist, IDRC This landmark book encompasses a comprehensive assessment of the potential economic impacts of future climate change, and the value of adaptation measures in Africa for different zones, regions, countries and farm types. Researchers developed and applied multiple analytical procedures to assess quantitatively how climate affects current agricultural systems in Africa, enabling them to predict how these systems may be affected in the future by climate change under various global warming scenarios, and suggesting what role adaptation could play. The study is the first to combine spatially referenced household survey data with climatic data at both national and international levels. This book provides vital knowledge about the impacts of climate change on Africa, serving as a guide to policy intervention strategies and investment in adaptation measures. It makes a major contribution to the analysis of climate change impacts and developing adaptation strategies, especially in the highly vulnerable farming communities in the developing world. Published with CEEPA and supported by the World Bank.
Book Synopsis Adaptation to Climate Change by : Gabriel S. Umoh
Download or read book Adaptation to Climate Change written by Gabriel S. Umoh and published by Xlibris Corporation. This book was released on 2013-12-12 with total page 148 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHNAGE: Agricultural Ecosystems and Gender Dimensions is a product of over four years of painstaking and rigorous research by a multidisciplinary team. It brings together empirical knowledge on farmers adaptation to climate change in a developing country. The book is comprehensive as well as broad in its coverage. Detailed analysis of various dimensions of climate change on dryland and wetland agriculture as well as fishing sector is presented from developing countrys perspectives. The book is made of thirteen chapters. The first chapter provide the setting of the climate change research environment wherein the rational, objectives and scope of climate change investigation are discussed. Chapter two provides an update of climate change adaptation research while the third chapter discusses the framework for analyzing climate change. The authors used their rich backgrounds in social science, gender and agricultural economics, and extension research to present their experiences in collecting and analyzing climate change data in real life situation in chapter four. The empirical evidence of trends in climate change, climate change information sources to farmers and fisherfolks, their knowledge level and vulnerability to climate change impacts are discussed in chapters five, six, seven, eight and nine. Chapter ten of the book looks at the impact of climate variability and long term change while adaptation to climate change is discussed in the eleventh chapter. The final chapter contains actions for climate change adaptation in developing countrys setting. The actions for climate change adaption are not only useful for policy but are as well actionable. The book is, therefore, a must for all genuinely interested in addressing the growing problem of climate change impacts in the most vulnerable section of the world- the developing countries.
Book Synopsis The Role of Local Institutions in Adaptive Processes to Climate Variability by : Todd A. Crane
Download or read book The Role of Local Institutions in Adaptive Processes to Climate Variability written by Todd A. Crane and published by Oxfam. This book was released on 2013 with total page 34 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level by : Naveen P Singh
Download or read book Climate Change Challenges and Adaptations at Farm-level written by Naveen P Singh and published by CABI. This book was released on 2015-11-25 with total page 246 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book emphasis the role of farm level adaptation as a key in developmental pathways that are challenged by climate risks in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. It throws light on key issues that arise in farm level impacts, adaptation and vulnerability to climate change and discusses Q2 methodological approaches undertaken in study domains of Asia and Africa. The book systematically describes the perceptions, aspirations as elicited/voiced by the farmers and identifies determinants of adaptation decisions. Chapters identify constraints and opportunities that are translated into indicative intervention recommendations towards climate resilient farm households in the semi-arid tropics of Asia and Africa. Furthermore, it discusses with evidences that contributes to the development of livelihood strategy for poor farmers in Asia (Bangladesh, India, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam and China) and Africa (Burkina Faso, Niger, Kenya and Ghana).
Book Synopsis Chocolate and Climate Change by : Sarah Elizabeth Eissler
Download or read book Chocolate and Climate Change written by Sarah Elizabeth Eissler and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Small-scale agriculture-dependent communities face increased pressures and challenges linked to anthropogenic climate change. While social-environmental systems gradually evolve to accommodate such variability, there is growing evidence to suggest that increased incidence of drought, flooding, and natural disasters exacerbates vulnerability of marginalized populations, such as small-scale commodity producers and more specifically, women. Small-scale agricultural producers in the Global South rely on crop production to meet basic needs and will experience the most severe impacts from climate change as they often lack resources and capacity to adapt. Due to current sociocultural landscapes, women are disproportionately affected by the impacts of climate change, facing economic, cultural, and social constraints with regard to access to paid employment, asset distribution, opportunities, and resources, often limiting them to unpaid care and labor tasks. Climate change impacts will likely overload womens workload and time burdens, and these disproportionate burdens will be exacerbated as these unpaid labor tasks, while both a critical component of household economic activity and household wellbeing, are often overlooked by development initiatives and capacity building programs. This research study presents an intra-household analysis of gendered divisions of labor and its implication for household adaptive capacity to impacts of climate change for small-scale cocoa producers in Indonesia. In small-scale cocoa-producing households, womens labor contributions are essential to the sustainable supply of cocoa. They are involved in all stages of cocoa production but are not considered the household farmer and as such, are often overlooked for capacity or skill-building opportunities or trainings. Much of the current literature examining gender and small-scale cocoa production is contextualized to West Africa, the leading global producing region of cacao. None has yet to examine the gender dynamics of small-scale cacao production in Indonesia, the third largest global producer of cacao.Drawing on qualitative case studies from two Indonesian provinces, this study explores intra-household dynamics of small-scale cacao producers to understand household gender divisions of labor, and how men and women perceive and adapt to impacts of climate change. Primary qualitative data were collected over a seven-month period in 2017 in two Indonesian provinces (Lampung and South Sulawesi), including 11 focus group discussions with 117 participants, and 49 in-depth interviews with men and women small-scale cacao producers and women within small-scale cacao producing households. Quantitative data on divisions of labor was assessed from a random sample of 221 small-scale cacao producers. This analysis presents the first evidence of divisions of labor in cocoa-producing households in the Indonesian context. It employs contextual and gender-disaggregated quantitative data to reveal intra-household dynamics on decision-making, time allocation, divisions of domestic and agricultural labor, and how these relate to (in)abilities to adapt to impacts of climate change. Results show that women are actively involved in small-scale cocoa production in Indonesia, albeit to varying degrees. Their participation is shaped by socio-cultural norms and hindered by a lack of access to training, skill building, or resources. Although men are considered the chocolate farmer (as cocoa farmers are referred to in Indonesia), women are responsible for several production and post-harvesting steps and make critical adaptation decisions related to optimal production and sale of household cocoa production, particularly in light of a changing climate. Climate change has tangible impacts on both men and womens activities in the cocoa value chain, requiring various adaptation strategies that have implication for production. Men and women interpret and discuss impacts of climate change differently, as men consider these in terms of agricultural production whereas women describe impacts with regard to household wellbeing. This research provides qualitative insights into how climate change impacts men and women within the same household differently, and how men and women are able to respond to those impacts. Policy, programming, and further research must address intra-household dynamics and the womens labor role in family farming as well as income-generating activities. And as global demand for cacao rises and impacts of climate change increase with severity and frequency, it is essential to address womens participation in the Indonesian cocoa value chain.
Author :Steeg, J. van de, Herrero, M., Notenbaert, A. Publisher :ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD) ISBN 13 :929146323X Total Pages :65 pages Book Rating :4.2/5 (914 download)
Book Synopsis Supporting the vulnerable: Increasing adaptive capacities of agropastoralists to climate change in West and southern Africa using a transdisciplinary research approach by : Steeg, J. van de, Herrero, M., Notenbaert, A.
Download or read book Supporting the vulnerable: Increasing adaptive capacities of agropastoralists to climate change in West and southern Africa using a transdisciplinary research approach written by Steeg, J. van de, Herrero, M., Notenbaert, A. and published by ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD). This book was released on 2013-12-31 with total page 65 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis The Perception of and Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa by : David Maddison
Download or read book The Perception of and Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa written by David Maddison and published by World Bank Publications. This book was released on 2007 with total page 53 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract: The objective of this paper is to determine the ability of farmers in Africa to detect climate change, and to ascertain how they have adapted to whatever climate change they believe has occurred. The paper also asks farmers whether they perceive any barriers to adaptation and attempts to determine the characteristics of those farmers who, despite claiming to have witnessed climate change, have not yet responded to it. The study is based on a large-scale survey of agriculturalists in 11 African countries. The survey reveals that significant numbers of farmers believe that temperatures have already increased and that precipitation has declined. Those with the greatest experience of farming are more likely to notice climate change. Further, neighboring farmers tell a consistent story. There are important differences in the propensity of farmers living in different locations to adapt and there may be institutional impediments to adaptation in some countries. Although large numbers of farmers perceive no barriers to adaptation, those that do perceive them tend to cite their poverty and inability to borrow. Few if any farmers mentioned lack of appropriate seed, security of tenure, or market accessibility as problems. Those farmers who perceive climate change but fail to respond may require particular incentives or assistance to do what is ultimately in their own best interests. Although experienced farmers are more likely to perceive climate change, it is educated farmers who are more likely to respond by making at least one adaptation.
Book Synopsis Understanding Farmers' Perceptions and Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability: The Case of the Limpopo Basin, South Africa by : Glwadys Aymone Gbetibouo
Download or read book Understanding Farmers' Perceptions and Adaptations to Climate Change and Variability: The Case of the Limpopo Basin, South Africa written by Glwadys Aymone Gbetibouo and published by Intl Food Policy Res Inst. This book was released on 2009 with total page 52 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Climate change is expected to have serious environmental, economic, and social impacts on South Africa. In particular, rural farmers, whose livelihoods depend on the use of natural resources, are likely to bear the brunt of adverse impacts. The extent to which these impacts are felt depends in large part on the extent of adaptation in response to climate change. This research uses a "bottom-up" approach, which seeks to gain insights from the farmers themselves based on a farm household survey. Farm-level data were collected from 794 households in the Limpopo River Basin of South Africa for the farming season 2004-2005. The study examines how farmer perceptions correspond with climate data recorded at meteorological stations in the Limpopo River Basin and analyzes farmers' adaptation responses to climate change and variability. A Heckman probit model and a multinomial logit (MNL) model are used to examine the determinants of adaptation to climate change and variability. The statistical analysis of the climate data shows that temperature has increased over the years. Rainfall is characterized by large interannual variability, with the previous three years being very dry. Indeed, the analysis shows that farmers' perceptions of climate change are in line with the climatic data records. However, only approximately half of the farmers have adjusted their farming practices to account for the impacts of climate change. Lack of access to credit was cited by respondents as the main factor inhibiting adaptation. The results of the multinomial logit and Heckman probit models highlighted that household size, farming experience, wealth, access to credit, access to water, tenure rights, off-farm activities, and access to extension are the main factors that enhance adaptive capacity. Thus, the government should design policies aimed at improving these factors.
Book Synopsis Decentralized Governance of Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa by : Esbern Friis-Hansen
Download or read book Decentralized Governance of Adaptation to Climate Change in Africa written by Esbern Friis-Hansen and published by CABI. This book was released on 2017-07-12 with total page 174 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Two perspectives have dominated the social science discourse on climate change adaptation. Firstly, an international narrative among UN and donor agencies of technical and financial support for planned climate change adaptation. Secondly, a significant volume of studies discuss how local communities can undertake their own autonomous adaptation. Effective and sustainable climate adaptation requires a third focus: understanding of the political processes within sub-national institutions that mediate between national and local practices. This book address the knowledge gap that currently exists about the role of district-level institutions in Sub-Saharan Africa in providing an enabling institutional environment for rural climate change adaptation.
Book Synopsis Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability in Rural West Africa by : Joseph A. Yaro
Download or read book Adaptation to Climate Change and Variability in Rural West Africa written by Joseph A. Yaro and published by Springer. This book was released on 2018-04-22 with total page 244 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents conceptual and empirical discussions of adaptation to climate change/variability in West Africa. Highlighting different countries’ experiences in adaptation by different socio-economic groups and efforts at building their adaptive capacity, it offers readers a holistic understanding of adaptation on the basis of contextual and generic sources of adaptive capacity. Focusing on adaptation to climate change/variability is critical because the developmental challenges West Africa faces are increasingly intertwined with its climate history. Today, climate change is a major developmental issue for agrarian rural communities with high percentages of the population earning a living directly or indirectly from the natural environment. This makes them highly vulnerable to climate-driven ecological change, in addition to threats in the broader political economic context. It is imperative that rural people adapt to climate change, but their ability to successfully do so may be limited by competing risks and vulnerabilities. As such, elucidating those vulnerabilities and sources of strength with regard to the adaptive capacities needed to support successful adaptation and avoid maladaptation is critical for future policy formulation. Though the empirical discussion is geographically based on West Africa, its applicability in terms of the processes, structures, needs, strategies, and recommendations for policy transcends the region and provides useful lessons for understanding adaptation broadly in the developing world.
Book Synopsis Biodiversity, Carbon and Chocolate by : Lord K. Ameyaw
Download or read book Biodiversity, Carbon and Chocolate written by Lord K. Ameyaw and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 138 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Global demand of cocoa for chocolate moved the native cocoa production frontier from ancient Maya and Aztec to other favorable tropical locations around the world. Cocoa growing arrived in West Africa sometime by the late 1800s and was an instant success story. A massive investment in the form of expansion of lands under cultivation, intensification driven by improved varieties/systems and a plethora of farming incentives have led West Africa to supply more than half of the world's cocoa. Cocoa agroforestry provides a livelihood for many smallholder farmers and significant contribution to national economies; however, it also results in deforestation and land degradation. The traditional cocoa agroforestry system in highly forested tropical regions, utilized shade cocoa systems and require overhead canopy and favorable humidity to thrive. Thus, lands suitable for forest reserves or timber production, are also suitable for cocoa production. Land conversion of biodiverse High Forests in Ghana, part of the global biodiversity hotspot of the West African Guinean forest landscape, have allowed Ghana to become the second largest global cocoa producing nation. Cocoa led deforestation dominates the reported 2% rate of deforestation. In order to curb cocoa-led deforestation, it is essential to understand the crucial social, economic and environmental underpinnings of cocoa production. This study focuses on determining land use change and deforestation in the Krokosua Hills Forest Reserve, one of the most important cocoa producing areas of Ghana. Land use types are regulated within the reserve and timber production and protected area inside the reserve were compared with areas immediately outside the forest reserve over a 17-year period using multispectral satellite images acquired from Landsat and Sentinel earth observatory programs. A two-step land use pattern of change was observed, with closed forest land changing to open forest, and open forests were converted to croplands. These changes were mostly observed in areas of the forest reserve which have been technically designated as a production zone for wood/timber harvesting and admitted farming, in comparison to the areas specifically maintained for forest protection. Tree species composition varied significantly among the two broad management zones in comparison to uncultivated land within the forest reserve. Classifying tree species into ecological guilds depicts a natural reference condition of shade tolerant species, with non-pioneer light demanders among natural regeneration encountered in uncultivated areas. In contrast with other areas of the reserve where cocoa farming is interspersed with forests, regeneration of shade tolerant species is rare, with a greater amount of species as non-pioneer light demanders and pioneer species. Species composition of adult trees also showed a pattern of higher proportions of economically valuable species on cocoa farms compared with natural forest areas that are more diverse and have species represented in all the economic valuation classes of trees. In essence, cocoa farming promotes deforestation and species compositional changes that unequivocally present a challenge for forest management, particularly where objectives of cocoa farming and forestry are both emphasized within a broad land use category. This study suggests timber production and cocoa production, two vital industries in Ghana are connected with initial cutting leading conversion to cocoa. Cocoa production is susceptible to climatic variations which may be mitigated by environmentally friendly shaded cocoa production which effectively reduce associated deforestation. However, once cocoa farms are established, reduction of shade trees increases forest degradation, as farmers seek to increase cocoa yields. Therefore, land use change and the physical environment are interconnected. Since cocoa cultivation is essential to many livelihoods in Ghana, a changing global climate is of concern to smallholder cocoa farmers. Understanding cocoa farmers' perceptions on topics of climate change and its impacts are thus necessary to assess the potential of recent economic incentives to enhance sustainable cocoa production. A social survey of farmers' perception/knowledge of climate change and its potential effect on cocoa production was conducted to assess beliefs. I examined the potential of economic incentives of a REDD+ climate mitigation strategy as an alternative income generating avenue to maintain lower intensity, shaded cocoa production. Farmers' perceptions of climate were not in agreement with empirical data. Although farmers recognize the need to protect trees to provide ecosystem benefits, the system of direct monetary benefits associated with tree protection/maintenance presents a challenge for the success of integrating climate change mitigation strategies (REDD+) into cocoa farming. Common farm/cultural practices of cocoa farmers (e.g. slash and burn) may also degrade land, reducing forest biodiversity and releasing carbon.
