Abstracting Away The Machine

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Abstracting Away the Machine

Author : Mark Jones Lorenzo
Publisher : Independently Published
ISBN 13 : 9781082395949
Total Pages : 326 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (959 download)

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Book Synopsis Abstracting Away the Machine by : Mark Jones Lorenzo

Download or read book Abstracting Away the Machine written by Mark Jones Lorenzo and published by Independently Published. This book was released on 2019-08-22 with total page 326 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: At the dawn of the computer age, an elite development team at IBM built the most influential computer programming language in history: FORTRAN. Abstracting Away the Machine tells the epic story of how they did it--and what happened next. Over the past six decades, programming languages like ALGOL, BASIC, C/C++, COBOL, Java, LISP, LOGO, Pascal, PL/I, Python, Visual Basic, and many others opened up the field of computer science, and of computer programming in general, to the masses. But all of these high-level languages (HLLs)--computer languages that automate, hide, or otherwise abstract away the underlying operations of the machine--owe a huge debt of gratitude to FORTRAN (FORmula TRANslation), the first HLL to achieve widespread adoption. Many programming practices that we take for granted now came about as a result of FORTRAN. Created over a three-year period at IBM by a development team led by a brilliant but wayward mathematician named John W. Backus, FORTRAN was implemented initially on the IBM 704 mainframe computer in the mid-1950s, with dialects of the language quickly spreading thereafter to other platforms. FORTRAN's powerful compiler, which translated human-readable code into code a computer could understand, produced incredibly clean and optimized standalone executable programs, all of which could be run independently of the compiler, setting the standard for decades to come--and overcoming the doubts of many skeptics along the way, who thought the FORTRAN project would never succeed. In the 1960s the language was standardized, with machine-dependent commands excised, and many platform-independent implementations followed. With the language now portable, able to run on any computer (at least in theory), FORTRAN, almost by accident, secured a stranglehold in the fields of science and engineering. The language also came to dominate in the supercomputing industry. But FORTRAN, a blue-collar workhorse more concerned with results than with style, was a victim of its own success--the language sowed the seeds of its own demise. New high-level languages sprouted up, stealing the good bits from FORTRAN while simultaneously defining themselves in opposition to it. FORTRAN had become the foil. As these new languages pierced the cutting edge of the programming landscape, they redefined computing paradigms (e.g., with structured programming, object-oriented programming, and the like), and FORTRAN--though eventually (and repeatedly) modernized and formally renamed Fortran--struggled to keep up through multiple standardization efforts, finally ceding significant ground to its successors as it slowly withdrew from the spotlight. To add insult to injury, even John Backus eventually turned against his creation. This is not a book on how to program in FORTRAN, nor is it a technical manual. Rather, the focus in Abstracting Away the Machine, which chronicles the complete history and development of the FORTRAN programming language, is set squarely on telling three interlocking stories: (1) How an elite group of computing trailblazers built FORTRAN, (2) Why the conditions at the time were ripe for them to succeed, and (3) What happened after they did. Tracing the long arc of FORTRAN's development and maturation is integral to understanding not only the history of programming but also the state of computer science today. The birth of FORTRAN planted a seed that led to the full flowering of high-level languages, since FORTRAN overcame initial skepticism by demonstrating to the world that a well-made HLL really could abstract away the machine.

Abstract Machine Models for Parallel and Distributed Computing

Author : M. Kara
Publisher : IOS Press
ISBN 13 : 9789051992670
Total Pages : 236 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (926 download)

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Book Synopsis Abstract Machine Models for Parallel and Distributed Computing by : M. Kara

Download or read book Abstract Machine Models for Parallel and Distributed Computing written by M. Kara and published by IOS Press. This book was released on 1996 with total page 236 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Abstract Machine Models have played a profound though frequently unacknowledged role in the development of modern computing systems. They provide a precise definition of vital concepts, allow system complexity to be managed by providing appropriate views of the activity under consideration, enable reasoning about the correctness and quantitative performance of proposed problem solutions, and encourage communication through a common medium of expression. Abstract Models in Parallel and Distributed computing have a particularly important role in the development of contemporary systems, encapsulating and controlling an inherently high degree of complexity. The Parallel and Distributed computing communities have traditionally considered themselves to be separate. However, there is a significant contemporary interest in both of these communities in a common hardware model; a set of workstation-class machines connected by a high-performance network. The traditional Parallel/Distributed distinction therefore appears under threat.

Endless Loop

Author : Mark Jones Lorenzo
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781974277070
Total Pages : 190 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (77 download)

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Book Synopsis Endless Loop by : Mark Jones Lorenzo

Download or read book Endless Loop written by Mark Jones Lorenzo and published by . This book was released on 2017-08-22 with total page 190 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Endless Loop" chronicles the complete history of the BASIC programming language--from its humble beginnings at Dartmouth College, to its widespread adoption and dominance in education, to its decline and subsequent modern rebirth.In the early morning hours of May 1, 1964, Dartmouth College birthed fraternal twins: BASIC, the Beginner's All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code programming language, and, simultaneously, the Dartmouth Time-Sharing System (DTSS). It hadn't been an easy birth, and the gestation period was likewise difficult. BASIC was primarily the idea of one man, mathematics professor John Kemeny, a brilliant Hungarian mathematician who had once been an assistant to Albert Einstein, while the DTSS satisfied the vision of another, mathematics and statistics professor Thomas Kurtz, who had brought a democratizing spirit to Dartmouth's campus in the form of free computing for all.BASIC and DTSS caught on at Dartmouth quickly, with a vast majority of undergraduates (and faculty) making use of the computer system via teletypewriters only several years after its inception. But by the early 1970s, with the personal computer revolution fast approaching, Kemeny and Kurtz began to lose control over BASIC as it achieved widespread popularity outside of Dartmouth. The language was being adapted to run on a wide variety of computers, some much too short of memory to contain the full set of Dartmouth BASIC features. Most notably, Microsoft built its business on the back of ROM-based BASIC interpreters for a variety of microcomputers. Although the language was ubiquitous in schools by the early 1980s, it came under attack by such notables as computer scientist Edsger W. Dijkstra for its lack of structure as well as by Kemeny and Kurtz themselves, who viewed non-Dartmouth "Street BASIC" as blasphemous and saw it as their mission to right the ship through language standardization and the release of True BASIC. But by then it was too late: the era of BASIC's global dominance was over.In "Endless Loop," author Mark Jones Lorenzo documents the history and development of Dartmouth BASIC, True BASIC, Tiny BASIC, Microsoft BASIC--including Altair BASIC, Applesoft BASIC, Color BASIC, Commodore BASIC, TRS-80 Level II BASIC, TI BASIC, IBM BASICA/GW-BASIC, QuickBASIC/QBASIC, Visual Basic, and Small Basic--as well as 9845 BASIC, Atari BASIC, BBC BASIC, CBASIC, Locomotive BASIC, MacBASIC, QB64, Simons' BASIC, Sinclair BASIC, SuperBASIC, and Turbo Basic/PowerBASIC, among a number of other implementations.The ascendance of BASIC paralleled the emergence of the personal computer, so the story of BASIC is first and foremost a story--actually, many interlocking stories--about computers. But it is also a tale of talented people who built a language out of a set of primal ingredients: sweat, creativity, rivalry, jealousy, cooperation, and plain hard work, and then set the language loose in a world filled with unintended consequences. How those unintended consequences played out, leading to the demise of the most popular computer language the world has ever known, is the focus of "Endless Loop."

IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems

Author : Emerson W. Pugh
Publisher : MIT Press
ISBN 13 : 9780262161237
Total Pages : 860 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (612 download)

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Book Synopsis IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems by : Emerson W. Pugh

Download or read book IBM's 360 and Early 370 Systems written by Emerson W. Pugh and published by MIT Press. This book was released on 1991 with total page 860 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: No product offering has had greater impact on the computer industry than the IBM System/360. This book describes the creation of this remarkable system and the developments it spawned, including its successor, System/370.

Out of Their Minds

Author : Clifford D. Simak
Publisher : Open Road Media
ISBN 13 : 1504013263
Total Pages : 162 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (4 download)

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Book Synopsis Out of Their Minds by : Clifford D. Simak

Download or read book Out of Their Minds written by Clifford D. Simak and published by Open Road Media. This book was released on 2015-07-21 with total page 162 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A writer finds himself trapped in an isolated village where anything imagined becomes reality in this wildly inventive contemporary fantasy Hoping to write his book in quiet and seclusion, Horton Smith has returned home to Pilot Knob. Here, in the tiny village where he passed so many carefree childhood years, he is untroubled by the pressures of the big city and can freely answer the call of his muse. Of course, back in the city Horton didn’t have to run from dinosaurs. There were no cartoon hillbillies offering him moonshine, Don Quixote was content to confine himself to the pages of a book, and the Devil himself was not on Horton’s tail. Something very, very unusual is going on in Pilot Knob, and Horton Smith is determined to get to the bottom of it—if his own imagination doesn’t kill him first! In Out of Their Minds, science fiction Grand Master Clifford D. Simak changes gears, treating his readers to a delightfully satiric flight of fancy and fantasy. An award-winning author renowned for his remarkable visions of the future, Simak brings creatures and characters from humankind’s collective imagination to breathtaking life in this fast-moving and unforgettable tale.

Abstract State Machines 2004. Advances in Theory and Practice

Author : Wolf Zimmermann
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3540220941
Total Pages : 246 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (42 download)

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Book Synopsis Abstract State Machines 2004. Advances in Theory and Practice by : Wolf Zimmermann

Download or read book Abstract State Machines 2004. Advances in Theory and Practice written by Wolf Zimmermann and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2004-05-11 with total page 246 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 11th International Workshop on Abstract State Machines, ASM 2004, held in Lutherstadt Wittenberg, Germany, in May 2004. The 12 revised full research papers presented together with 4 invited papers were carefully reviewed and selected for inclusion in the book. The papers reflect state-of-the-art research and development of the abstract state machine method for the design and analysis of complex software and hardware systems. Besides theoretical results and methodological progress, applications in various fields are studied as well.

Abstract State Machines

Author : Egon Börger
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 364218216X
Total Pages : 438 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (421 download)

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Book Synopsis Abstract State Machines by : Egon Börger

Download or read book Abstract State Machines written by Egon Börger and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-12-06 with total page 438 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

IBM's Early Computers

Author : Charles J. Bashe
Publisher : Mit Press
ISBN 13 : 9780262523936
Total Pages : 735 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (239 download)

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Book Synopsis IBM's Early Computers by : Charles J. Bashe

Download or read book IBM's Early Computers written by Charles J. Bashe and published by Mit Press. This book was released on 1985-12-03 with total page 735 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The challenges faced by IBM's research and development laboratories, the technological paths they chose, and how these choices affected the company and the computer industry.

Functional and Logic Programming

Author : Matthias Blume
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3642122515
Total Pages : 355 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (421 download)

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Book Synopsis Functional and Logic Programming by : Matthias Blume

Download or read book Functional and Logic Programming written by Matthias Blume and published by Springer. This book was released on 2010-04-11 with total page 355 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book constitutes the refereed proceedings of the 10th International Symposium on Functional and Logic Programming, FLOPS 2010, held in Sendai, Japan, in April 2010. The 21 revised full papers presented together with 3 invited talks were carefully reviewed and selected from 49 submissions. The papers are organized in topical sections on types; program analysis and transformation; foundations; logic programming; evaluation and normalization; term rewriting; and parallelism and control.

Modern Fortran

Author : Norman S. Clerman
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1139504142
Total Pages : 351 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (395 download)

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Book Synopsis Modern Fortran by : Norman S. Clerman

Download or read book Modern Fortran written by Norman S. Clerman and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2011-12-05 with total page 351 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Fortran is one of the oldest high-level languages and remains the premier language for writing code for science and engineering applications. This book is for anyone who uses Fortran, from the novice learner to the advanced expert. It describes best practices for programmers, scientists, engineers, computer scientists and researchers who want to apply good style and incorporate rigorous usage in their own Fortran code or to establish guidelines for a team project. The presentation concentrates primarily on the characteristics of Fortran 2003, while also describing methods in Fortran 90/95 and valuable new features in Fortran 2008. The authors draw on more than a half century of experience writing production Fortran code to present clear succinct guidelines on formatting, naming, documenting, programming and packaging conventions and various programming paradigms such as parallel processing (including OpenMP, MPI and coarrays), OOP, generic programming and C language interoperability.

Interactive Systems: Design, Specification, and Verification

Author : Chris J. Johnson
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3540455221
Total Pages : 221 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (44 download)

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Book Synopsis Interactive Systems: Design, Specification, and Verification by : Chris J. Johnson

Download or read book Interactive Systems: Design, Specification, and Verification written by Chris J. Johnson and published by Springer. This book was released on 2003-06-30 with total page 221 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book constitutes the thoroughly refereed post-proceedings of the 8th International Workshop on the Design, Specification, and Verification of Interactive Systems, DSV-IS 2001, held in Glasgow, Scotland, UK, in June 2001. The 12 revised full papers presented have gone through two rounds of reviewing, selection, and revision. The book offers topical sections on mobile interface design, context-sensitive interfaces, supervision and control systems, temporal and stochastic issues, and new perspectives.

Philosophy and Computing

Author : Thomas M. Powers
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319610430
Total Pages : 242 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (196 download)

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Book Synopsis Philosophy and Computing by : Thomas M. Powers

Download or read book Philosophy and Computing written by Thomas M. Powers and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-10-26 with total page 242 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book features papers from CEPE-IACAP 2015, a joint international conference focused on the philosophy of computing. Inside, readers will discover essays that explore current issues in epistemology, philosophy of mind, logic, and philosophy of science from the lens of computation. Coverage also examines applied issues related to ethical, social, and political interest. The contributors first explore how computation has changed philosophical inquiry. Computers are now capable of joining humans in exploring foundational issues. Thus, we can ponder machine-generated explanation, thought, agency, and other quite fascinating concepts. The papers are also concerned with normative aspects of the computer and information technology revolution. They examine technology-specific analyses of key challenges, from Big Data to autonomous robots to expert systems for infrastructure control and financial services. The virtue of a collection that ranges over philosophical questions, such as this one does, lies in the prospects for a more integrated understanding of issues. These are early days in the partnership between philosophy and information technology. Philosophers and researchers are still sorting out many foundational issues. They will need to deploy all of the tools of philosophy to establish this foundation. This volume admirably showcases those tools in the hands of some excellent scholars.

Physical Computation and Cognitive Science

Author : Nir Fresco
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3642413757
Total Pages : 229 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (424 download)

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Book Synopsis Physical Computation and Cognitive Science by : Nir Fresco

Download or read book Physical Computation and Cognitive Science written by Nir Fresco and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-10-12 with total page 229 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents a study of digital computation in contemporary cognitive science. Digital computation is a highly ambiguous concept, as there is no common core definition for it in cognitive science. Since this concept plays a central role in cognitive theory, an adequate cognitive explanation requires an explicit account of digital computation. More specifically, it requires an account of how digital computation is implemented in physical systems. The main challenge is to deliver an account encompassing the multiple types of existing models of computation without ending up in pancomputationalism, that is, the view that every physical system is a digital computing system. This book shows that only two accounts, among the ones examined by the author, are adequate for explaining physical computation. One of them is the instructional information processing account, which is developed here for the first time. "This book provides a thorough and timely analysis of differing accounts of computation while advancing the important role that information plays in understanding computation. Fresco’s two-pronged approach will appeal to philosophically inclined computer scientists who want to better understand common theoretical claims in cognitive science.” Marty J. Wolf, Professor of Computer Science, Bemidji State University “An original and admirably clear discussion of central issues in the foundations of contemporary cognitive science.” Frances Egan, Professor of Philosophy, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey

Genesis Machines

Author : Martyn Amos
Publisher : Atlantic Books
ISBN 13 : 1782394915
Total Pages : 362 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (823 download)

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Book Synopsis Genesis Machines by : Martyn Amos

Download or read book Genesis Machines written by Martyn Amos and published by Atlantic Books. This book was released on 2007-06-14 with total page 362 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The paperback version of the groundbreaking book about the next generation of computers: not only are they smaller—they're alive. Cells, gels, and DNA strands are the "wetware" of the twenty-first century. Imagine taking cells from a cancer patient and programming them to detect disease and then prompt the body to cure itself. Or clothes woven with microchips, nanofibers, and living cells to form wearable bio-weapons detection systems. Both of these revolutionary applications are closer than we think. Some scientists are pushing the boundaries even further by creating synthetic biology where brand new creatures are engineered in the laboratory. In this breathtaking book, a leading expert in the field reveals just how the stuff of science fiction is rapidly becoming a reality. This new technology will change the way we think—not just about computers, but about the nature of life itself.

Mastering Functional Programming

Author : Anatolii Kmetiuk
Publisher : Packt Publishing Ltd
ISBN 13 : 1788626036
Total Pages : 372 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (886 download)

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Book Synopsis Mastering Functional Programming by : Anatolii Kmetiuk

Download or read book Mastering Functional Programming written by Anatolii Kmetiuk and published by Packt Publishing Ltd. This book was released on 2018-08-31 with total page 372 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Learn how functional programming can help you in deploying web servers and working with databases in a declarative and pure way Key Features Learn functional programming from scratch Program applications with side effects in a pure way Gain expertise in working with array tools for functional programming Book Description In large projects, it can get difficult keeping track of all the interdependencies of the code base and how its state changes at runtime. Functional Programming helps us solve these problems. It is a paradigm specifically designed to deal with the complexity of software development. This book will show you how the right abstractions can reduce complexity and make your code easy to read and understand. Mastering Functional Programming begins by touching upon the basics such as what lambdas are and how to write declarative code with the help of functions. It then moves on to more advanced concepts such as pure functions and type classes, the problems they aim to solve, and how to use them in real-world scenarios. You will also explore some of the more advanced patterns in the world of functional programming, such as monad transformers and Tagless Final. In the concluding chapters, you will be introduced to the actor model, implement it in modern functional languages, and explore the subject of parallel programming. By the end of the book, you will have mastered the concepts entailing functional programming along with object-oriented programming (OOP) to build robust applications. What you will learn Write reliable and scalable software based on solid foundations Explore the cutting edge of computer science research Effectively solve complex architectural problems in a robust way Avoid unwanted outcomes such as errors or delays and focus on business logic Write parallel programs in a functional style using the actor model Use functional data structures and collections in your day-to-day work Who this book is for If you are from an imperative and OOP background, this book will guide you through the world of functional programming, irrespective of which programming language you use.

50 Kubernetes Concepts Every DevOps Engineer Should Know

Author : Michael Levan
Publisher : Packt Publishing Ltd
ISBN 13 : 1804617490
Total Pages : 279 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (46 download)

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Book Synopsis 50 Kubernetes Concepts Every DevOps Engineer Should Know by : Michael Levan

Download or read book 50 Kubernetes Concepts Every DevOps Engineer Should Know written by Michael Levan and published by Packt Publishing Ltd. This book was released on 2023-01-30 with total page 279 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A must-have Kubernetes book to learn key concepts for succeeding in any production environment, be it a greenfield Kubernetes environment or your cloud-native journey Key FeaturesAdvance in your Kubernetes journey with guidance from a seasoned k8s practitioner and trainerDiscover best practices for implementing Kubernetes in any production environmentGo beyond the basics and work with Kubernetes applications in every environmentBook Description Kubernetes is a trending topic among engineers, CTOs, CIOs, and other technically sound professionals. Due to its proliferation and importance for all cloud technologies, DevOps engineers nowadays need a solid grasp of key Kubernetes concepts to help their organization thrive. This book equips you with all the requisite information about how Kubernetes works and how to use it for the best results. You'll learn everything from why cloud native is important to implementing Kubernetes clusters to deploying applications in production. This book takes you on a learning journey, starting from what cloud native is and how to get started with Kubernetes in the cloud, on-premises, and PaaS environments such as OpenShift. Next, you'll learn about deploying applications in many ways, including Deployment specs, Ingress Specs, and StatefulSet specs. Finally, you'll be comfortable working with Kubernetes monitoring, observability, and security. Each chapter of 50 Kubernetes Concepts Every DevOps Engineer Should Know is built upon the previous chapter, ensuring that you develop practical skills as you work through the code examples in GitHub, allowing you to follow along while giving you practical knowledge. By the end of this book, you'll be able to implement Kubernetes in any environment, whether it's an existing environment, a greenfield environment, or your very own lab running in the cloud or your home. What you will learnFind out how Kubernetes works on-premises, in the cloud, and in PaaS environmentsWork with networking, cluster management, and application deploymentUnderstand why cloud native is crucial for Kubernetes applicationsDeploy apps in different states, including Stateless and StatefulMonitor and implement observability in your environmentExplore the functioning of Kubernetes security at the cluster, user, and application levelWho this book is for This book is for cloud engineers, developers, DevOps engineers, and infrastructure engineers responsible for inheriting a Kubernetes environment or creating a greenfield Kubernetes environment. If you are a professional who wants to get started with cloud-native applications and implement k8s best practices, then this book is a must-read. If you have engineered environments in the cloud and on-premises and understand how to deploy applications with a solid tenure in a developer role, this book will help you further your skills.

Everlasting Code

Author : Mark Jones Lorenzo
Publisher : Independently Published
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 512 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis Everlasting Code by : Mark Jones Lorenzo

Download or read book Everlasting Code written by Mark Jones Lorenzo and published by Independently Published. This book was released on 2021-08-22 with total page 512 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Grace Hopper's remarkable innovations in computing led to COBOL, which for decades was the most widely used programming language in the world. Everlasting Code offers an in-depth look at Hopper's work, while also chronicling the entire history of COBOL. The development of COBOL (COmmon Business-Oriented Language) was the strangest, wildest, and most dramatic story in the early history of computing. Everlasting Code covers it all, from Grace Hopper's pioneering work with compilers to the many contentious committee meetings that repeatedly put the birth of the language in jeopardy; from the race to build the world's first COBOL compiler to the numerous standardization efforts; and from the Y2K bug to the COVID-19 pandemic, times when public scapegoating of COBOL shifted into high gear. Even though it was the work of a committee and she was only indirectly involved in its creation, COBOL has Grace Hopper's fingerprints all over it. Therefore, since Everlasting Code tells two interrelated stories (that of Hopper's breakthroughs as well as the history of COBOL), the book is split into two parts. In the first part, we meet one of the most prolific computer scientists of the twentieth century and examine how Hopper's varied life experiences--as a student, professor, military officer, and programmer--led to her revolutionary ideas, setting the stage for the birth of COBOL. Hopper developed some of the earliest working compilers--programs that translated human-readable source code into machine code, a language computers could make sense of--including MATH-MATIC, for algebraic problems, and FLOW-MATIC, for data processing. Source code for Hopper's compilers had to be written in a form of everyday English, which proved eminently readable to some people and endlessly frustrating for others. FLOW-MATIC was the key influence for COBOL, as we discover in the second part of Everlasting Code. By the late 1950s, with the FORTRAN programming language dominating the engineering, scientific, and mathematical landscape, the need for a corresponding business data-processing language emerged. With Grace Hopper's full support, in early 1959 a programmer named Mary Hawes publicly suggested developing an industrywide common business language (CBL) capable of running the same programs on different computers. Thanks to Hopper's many government and military connections, the U.S. Department of Defense sponsored the CBL effort, taking the unprecedented step of bringing together many competing manufacturers and computer users for a high-stakes meeting at the Pentagon. Before long, subcommittees of CODASYL (the Committee on Data Systems Languages, which was formed to write the CBL) were at war with each other. Meanwhile, the chairman of CODASYL received a mysterious crated package. Inside was a tombstone with a reclining lamb statuette at the top and a single word engraved on the front: COBOL. Was this intended as a threat? Did someone want the language dead? Or was the tombstone merely delivering a warning: That if CODASYL couldn't get its act together, COBOL was sure to die an early death? Author Mark Jones Lorenzo takes you behind the scenes and inside the meeting rooms where the fate of a programming language hung in the balance. Filled with intrigue, conflict, suspense, drama, technical details, and the biographies of many larger-than-life personalities, Everlasting Code traces the precedents, the development, and the history of the COBOL programming language, which came to rule the world.