A Detailed Multi Zone Thermodynamic Simulation For Direct Injection Diesel Engine Combustion

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A Detailed Multi-Zone Thermodynamic Simulation For Direct-Injection Diesel Engine Combustion

Author : Xingyu Xue
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (867 download)

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Book Synopsis A Detailed Multi-Zone Thermodynamic Simulation For Direct-Injection Diesel Engine Combustion by : Xingyu Xue

Download or read book A Detailed Multi-Zone Thermodynamic Simulation For Direct-Injection Diesel Engine Combustion written by Xingyu Xue and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A detailed multi-zone thermodynamic simulation has been developed for the direct-injection (DI) diesel engine combustion process. For the purpose of predicting heterogeneous type combustion systems, the model explores the formation of pre-ignition radicals, start of combustion, and eventual heat release. These mechanisms are described based on the current understanding and knowledge of the diesel engine combustion acquired through advanced laser-based diagnostics. Six zones are developed to take into account the surrounding bulk gas, liquid- and vapor-phase fuel, pre-ignition mixing, fuel-rich combustion products as well as the diffusion flame combustion products. A three-step phenomenological soot model and a nitric oxide emission model are applied based on where and when each of these reactions mainly occurs within the diesel fuel jet evolution process. The simulation is completed for a 4.5 liter, inline four-cylinder diesel engine for a range of operating conditions. Specifically, the engine possesses a compression ratio of 16.6, and has a bore and stroke of 106 and 127 mm. The results suggest that the simulation is able to accurately reproduce the fuel jet evolution and heat release process for conventional diesel engine combustion conditions. The soot and nitric oxide models are able to qualitatively predict the effects of various engine parameters on the engine-out emissions. In particular, the detailed thermodynamics and characteristics with respect to the combustion and emission formation processes are investigated for different engine speed/loads, injection pressures and timings, and EGR levels. The local thermodynamic properties and energy, mass distributions obtained from the simulation offer some fundamental insights into heterogeneous type combustion systems. The current work provides opportunities to better study and understand the diesel engine combustion and emission formation mechanisms for conventional diesel engine combustion modes. The flexible, low computational cost features of this simulation result in a convenient tool for conducting parametric studies, and benefits for engine control and diagnostics. The electronic version of this dissertation is accessible from http://hdl.handle.net/1969.1/148225

Modelling Diesel Combustion

Author : P. A. Lakshminarayanan
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 904813885X
Total Pages : 313 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (481 download)

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Book Synopsis Modelling Diesel Combustion by : P. A. Lakshminarayanan

Download or read book Modelling Diesel Combustion written by P. A. Lakshminarayanan and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2010-03-03 with total page 313 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Phenomenology of Diesel Combustion and Modeling Diesel is the most efficient combustion engine today and it plays an important role in transport of goods and passengers on land and on high seas. The emissions must be controlled as stipulated by the society without sacrificing the legendary fuel economy of the diesel engines. These important drivers caused innovations in diesel engineering like re-entrant combustion chambers in the piston, lower swirl support and high pressure injection, in turn reducing the ignition delay and hence the nitric oxides. The limits on emissions are being continually reduced. The- fore, the required accuracy of the models to predict the emissions and efficiency of the engines is high. The phenomenological combustion models based on physical and chemical description of the processes in the engine are practical to describe diesel engine combustion and to carry out parametric studies. This is because the injection process, which can be relatively well predicted, has the dominant effect on mixture formation and subsequent course of combustion. The need for improving these models by incorporating new developments in engine designs is explained in Chapter 2. With “model based control programs” used in the Electronic Control Units of the engines, phenomenological models are assuming more importance now because the detailed CFD based models are too slow to be handled by the Electronic Control Units. Experimental work is necessary to develop the basic understanding of the pr- esses.

A Multi-zone Direct-injection Diesel Spray Combustion Model for Cycle Simulation Studies of Large-bore Engine Performance and Emissions

Download A Multi-zone Direct-injection Diesel Spray Combustion Model for Cycle Simulation Studies of Large-bore Engine Performance and Emissions PDF Online Free

Author : Dohoy Jung
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 330 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis A Multi-zone Direct-injection Diesel Spray Combustion Model for Cycle Simulation Studies of Large-bore Engine Performance and Emissions by : Dohoy Jung

Download or read book A Multi-zone Direct-injection Diesel Spray Combustion Model for Cycle Simulation Studies of Large-bore Engine Performance and Emissions written by Dohoy Jung and published by . This book was released on 2001 with total page 330 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Mixture Formation in Internal Combustion Engines

Author : Carsten Baumgarten
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3540308369
Total Pages : 312 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (43 download)

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Book Synopsis Mixture Formation in Internal Combustion Engines by : Carsten Baumgarten

Download or read book Mixture Formation in Internal Combustion Engines written by Carsten Baumgarten and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2006-09-28 with total page 312 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A systematic control of mixture formation with modern high-pressure injection systems enables us to achieve considerable improvements of the combustion pr- ess in terms of reduced fuel consumption and engine-out raw emissions. However, because of the growing number of free parameters due to more flexible injection systems, variable valve trains, the application of different combustion concepts within different regions of the engine map, etc., the prediction of spray and m- ture formation becomes increasingly complex. For this reason, the optimization of the in-cylinder processes using 3D computational fluid dynamics (CFD) becomes increasingly important. In these CFD codes, the detailed modeling of spray and mixture formation is a prerequisite for the correct calculation of the subsequent processes like ignition, combustion and formation of emissions. Although such simulation tools can be viewed as standard tools today, the predictive quality of the sub-models is c- stantly enhanced by a more accurate and detailed modeling of the relevant pr- esses, and by the inclusion of new important mechanisms and effects that come along with the development of new injection systems and have not been cons- ered so far. In this book the most widely used mathematical models for the simulation of spray and mixture formation in 3D CFD calculations are described and discussed. In order to give the reader an introduction into the complex processes, the book starts with a description of the fundamental mechanisms and categories of fuel - jection, spray break-up, and mixture formation in internal combustion engines.

Simulating Combustion

Author : Günter P. Merker
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3540306269
Total Pages : 424 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (43 download)

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Book Synopsis Simulating Combustion by : Günter P. Merker

Download or read book Simulating Combustion written by Günter P. Merker and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2005-12-17 with total page 424 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The numerical simulation of combustion processes in internal combustion engines, including also the formation of pollutants, has become increasingly important in the recent years, and today the simulation of those processes has already become an indispensable tool when - veloping new combustion concepts. While pure thermodynamic models are well-established tools that are in use for the simulation of the transient behavior of complex systems for a long time, the phenomenological models have become more important in the recent years and have also been implemented in these simulation programs. In contrast to this, the thr- dimensional simulation of in-cylinder combustion, i. e. the detailed, integrated and continuous simulation of the process chain injection, mixture formation, ignition, heat release due to combustion and formation of pollutants, has been significantly improved, but there is still a number of challenging problems to solve, regarding for example the exact description of s- processes like the structure of turbulence during combustion as well as the appropriate choice of the numerical grid. While chapter 2 includes a short introduction of functionality and operating modes of internal combustion engines, the basics of kinetic reactions are presented in chapter 3. In chapter 4 the physical and chemical processes taking place in the combustion chamber are described. Ch- ter 5 is about phenomenological multi-zone models, and in chapter 6 the formation of poll- ants is described.

Modeling Engine Spray and Combustion Processes

Author : Gunnar Stiesch
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9783540006824
Total Pages : 314 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (68 download)

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Book Synopsis Modeling Engine Spray and Combustion Processes by : Gunnar Stiesch

Download or read book Modeling Engine Spray and Combustion Processes written by Gunnar Stiesch and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2003-04-10 with total page 314 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The utilization of mathematical models to numerically describe the performance of internal combustion engines is of great significance in the development of new and improved engines. Today, such simulation models can already be viewed as standard tools, and their importance is likely to increase further as available com puter power is expected to increase and the predictive quality of the models is constantly enhanced. This book describes and discusses the most widely used mathematical models for in-cylinder spray and combustion processes, which are the most important subprocesses affecting engine fuel consumption and pollutant emissions. The relevant thermodynamic, fluid dynamic and chemical principles are summarized, and then the application of these principles to the in-cylinder processes is ex plained. Different modeling approaches for the each subprocesses are compared and discussed with respect to the governing model assumptions and simplifica tions. Conclusions are drawn as to which model approach is appropriate for a specific type of problem in the development process of an engine. Hence, this book may serve both as a graduate level textbook for combustion engineering stu dents and as a reference for professionals employed in the field of combustion en gine modeling. The research necessary for this book was carried out during my employment as a postdoctoral scientist at the Institute of Technical Combustion (ITV) at the Uni versity of Hannover, Germany and at the Engine Research Center (ERC) at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, USA.

Development of a Partially Premixed Combustion Model for a Diesel Engine Using Multiple Injection Strategies

Author : Rene Thygesen
Publisher : Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH
ISBN 13 : 3832530932
Total Pages : 157 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (325 download)

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Book Synopsis Development of a Partially Premixed Combustion Model for a Diesel Engine Using Multiple Injection Strategies by : Rene Thygesen

Download or read book Development of a Partially Premixed Combustion Model for a Diesel Engine Using Multiple Injection Strategies written by Rene Thygesen and published by Logos Verlag Berlin GmbH. This book was released on 2012 with total page 157 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In order to fulfil future emissions legislations, new combustion systems are to be investigated. One way of improving exhaust emissions is the application of multiple injection strategies and conventional or partially premixed combustion conditions to a Diesel engine. The application of numerical techniques as CFD supports and improves the quality of engine developments. Unfortunately, current spray and combustion models are not accurate enough to simulate multiple injection systems, being in this way a topic of research. The goal of this study was the development of a novel simulation method for the investigation of Diesel engines operated with multiple injection strategies and different combustion modes. The first part of this work focused in improving the spray modelling. The inform ation of 3D CFD simulations of the injector nozzle was introduced in the spray simulation as boundary conditions developing coupling subroutines for this issue. The atomisation modelling was also improved using validated presumed droplet size distributions. Moreover, to avoid the simulation of the injector nozzle for every investigated operating point, a novel interpolating tool was developed in order to create spray boundary conditions based on few 3D CFD simulations of the nozzle under certain initial and boundary conditions. The second part of this thesis dealt with the combustion modelling of Diesel engines. For this issue, a laminar flamelet approach called Representative Interactive Flamelet model (RIF) was selected and implemented. Afterwards, an extended combustion model based on RIF was developed in order to take into account multiple injection strategies. Finally, this new model was validated with a wide range of operating points: applying multiple injection strategies under conventional and partially premixed combustion conditions.

Advances in IC Engines and Combustion Technology

Author : Ashwani K. Gupta
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 9811559961
Total Pages : 939 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (115 download)

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Book Synopsis Advances in IC Engines and Combustion Technology by : Ashwani K. Gupta

Download or read book Advances in IC Engines and Combustion Technology written by Ashwani K. Gupta and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-08-18 with total page 939 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book comprises select peer-reviewed proceedings of the 26th National Conference on IC Engines and Combustion (NCICEC) 2019 which was organised by the Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Kurukshetra under the aegis of The Combustion Institute-Indian Section (CIIS). The book covers latest research and developments in the areas of combustion and propulsion, exhaust emissions, gas turbines, hybrid vehicles, IC engines, and alternative fuels. The contents include theoretical and numerical tools applied to a wide range of combustion problems, and also discusses their applications. This book can be a good reference for engineers, educators and researchers working in the area of IC engines and combustion.

Introduction to Modeling and Control of Internal Combustion Engine Systems

Author : Lino Guzzella
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3662080036
Total Pages : 303 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (62 download)

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Book Synopsis Introduction to Modeling and Control of Internal Combustion Engine Systems by : Lino Guzzella

Download or read book Introduction to Modeling and Control of Internal Combustion Engine Systems written by Lino Guzzella and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-03-14 with total page 303 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Internal combustion engines still have a potential for substantial improvements, particularly with regard to fuel efficiency and environmental compatibility. These goals can be achieved with help of control systems. Modeling and Control of Internal Combustion Engines (ICE) addresses these issues by offering an introduction to cost-effective model-based control system design for ICE. The primary emphasis is put on the ICE and its auxiliary devices. Mathematical models for these processes are developed in the text and selected feedforward and feedback control problems are discussed. The appendix contains a summary of the most important controller analysis and design methods, and a case study that analyzes a simplified idle-speed control problem. The book is written for students interested in the design of classical and novel ICE control systems.

Simulating Combustion

Author : Günter Merker
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9783540251613
Total Pages : 402 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (516 download)

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Book Synopsis Simulating Combustion by : Günter Merker

Download or read book Simulating Combustion written by Günter Merker and published by Springer. This book was released on 2005-10-20 with total page 402 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The numerical simulation of combustion processes in internal combustion engines, including also the formation of pollutants, has become increasingly important in the recent years, and today the simulation of those processes has already become an indispensable tool when - veloping new combustion concepts. While pure thermodynamic models are well-established tools that are in use for the simulation of the transient behavior of complex systems for a long time, the phenomenological models have become more important in the recent years and have also been implemented in these simulation programs. In contrast to this, the thr- dimensional simulation of in-cylinder combustion, i. e. the detailed, integrated and continuous simulation of the process chain injection, mixture formation, ignition, heat release due to combustion and formation of pollutants, has been significantly improved, but there is still a number of challenging problems to solve, regarding for example the exact description of s- processes like the structure of turbulence during combustion as well as the appropriate choice of the numerical grid. While chapter 2 includes a short introduction of functionality and operating modes of internal combustion engines, the basics of kinetic reactions are presented in chapter 3. In chapter 4 the physical and chemical processes taking place in the combustion chamber are described. Ch- ter 5 is about phenomenological multi-zone models, and in chapter 6 the formation of poll- ants is described.

Second Law Analysis of Premixed Compression Ignition Combustion in a Diesel Engine Using a Thermodynamic Engine Cycle Simulation

Author : Sushil Shreekant Oak
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (317 download)

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Book Synopsis Second Law Analysis of Premixed Compression Ignition Combustion in a Diesel Engine Using a Thermodynamic Engine Cycle Simulation by : Sushil Shreekant Oak

Download or read book Second Law Analysis of Premixed Compression Ignition Combustion in a Diesel Engine Using a Thermodynamic Engine Cycle Simulation written by Sushil Shreekant Oak and published by . This book was released on 2008 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A second law analysis of compression ignition engine was completed using a thermodynamic engine cycle simulation. The major components of availability destruction and transfer for an entire engine cycle were identified and the influence of mode of combustion, injection timing and EGR on availability balance was evaluated. The simulation pressure data was matched with the available experimental pressure data gathered from the tests on the Isuzu 1.7 L direct injection diesel engine. Various input parameters of the simulation were changed to represent actual engine conditions. Availability destruction due to combustion decreases with advanced injection timing and under premixed compression ignition (PCI) modes; but it is found to be insensitive to the level of EGR. Similarly, trends (or lack of trends) in the other components of availability balance were identified for variation in injection timing, EGR level and mode of combustion. Optimum strategy for efficient combustion processes was proposed based on the observed trends.

STOCHASTIC COMBUSTION MODELING OF DIRECT INJECTION DIESEL ENGINES.

Author : Yun Xiao
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 516 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis STOCHASTIC COMBUSTION MODELING OF DIRECT INJECTION DIESEL ENGINES. by : Yun Xiao

Download or read book STOCHASTIC COMBUSTION MODELING OF DIRECT INJECTION DIESEL ENGINES. written by Yun Xiao and published by . This book was released on 1991 with total page 516 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A new coalescence/dispersion model for stochastic turbulent mixings is proposed. The new model provides a more realistic description of the initial phase of mixing which strongly affects burn rate predictions.

Simulation of Combustion Process in Direct Injection Diesel Engine Based on Fuel Injection Characteristics

Author : Kazimierz Lejda
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (115 download)

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Book Synopsis Simulation of Combustion Process in Direct Injection Diesel Engine Based on Fuel Injection Characteristics by : Kazimierz Lejda

Download or read book Simulation of Combustion Process in Direct Injection Diesel Engine Based on Fuel Injection Characteristics written by Kazimierz Lejda and published by . This book was released on 2012 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Simulation of Combustion Process in Direct Injection Diesel Engine Based on Fuel Injection Characteristics.

Thermo-and Fluid-dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines

Author : James H.W. Whitelaw
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9783540426653
Total Pages : 460 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (266 download)

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Book Synopsis Thermo-and Fluid-dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines by : James H.W. Whitelaw

Download or read book Thermo-and Fluid-dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines written by James H.W. Whitelaw and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2002-01-11 with total page 460 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume includes versions of papers selected from those presented at the THIESEL 2000 Conference on Thermofluidynamic Processes in Diesel Engines, held at the Universidad Politecnica de Valencia, during the period of September th th 13 to 15 , 2000. The papers are grouped into seven thematic areas: State of the Art and Prospective, Fuels for Diesel Engines, Injection System and Spray Formation, Combustion and Pollutant Formation, Modelling, Experimental Techniques, and Air Management. These areas cover most of the technologies and research strategies that may allow Light Duty and Heavy Duty Diesel engines to comply with current and forthcoming emission standards, while maintaining or improving fuel consumption. The main objectives of the conference were to bring together ideas and experience from Industry and Universities to facilitate interchange of information and to promote discussion of future research and development needs. The technical papers emphasised the use diagnostic and simulation techniques and their relationship to engineering practice and the advancement of the Diesel engine. We hope that this approach, which proved to be successful at the Conference, is reflected in this volume. We thank all those who contributed to the success of the Conference, and particularly the members of the Advisory Committee who assessed abstracts and chaired many of the technical sessions. Weare also grateful to participants who presented their work or contributed to the many discussions. Finally, the Conference benefitted from financial support from the organisations listed below and we are glad to have this opportunity to record our gratitude.

Simulation of the Diesel Engine Combustion Process Using the Stochastic Reactor Model

Author : Michal Pasternak
Publisher : Logos Verlag Berlin
ISBN 13 : 9783832543105
Total Pages : 160 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (431 download)

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Book Synopsis Simulation of the Diesel Engine Combustion Process Using the Stochastic Reactor Model by : Michal Pasternak

Download or read book Simulation of the Diesel Engine Combustion Process Using the Stochastic Reactor Model written by Michal Pasternak and published by Logos Verlag Berlin. This book was released on 2016 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The present work is concerned with the simulation of combustion, emission formation and fuel effects in Diesel engines. The simulation process is built around a zero-dimensional (0D) direct injection stochastic reactor model (DI-SRM), which is based on a probability density function (PDF) approach. An emphasis is put on the modelling of mixing time to improve the representation of turbulence-chemistry interactions in the 0D DI-SRM. The mixing time model describes the intensity of mixing in the gas-phase for scalars such as enthalpy and species mass fraction. On a crank angle basis, it governs the composition of the gas mixture that is described by PDF distributions for the scalars. The derivation of the mixing time is based on an extended heat release analysis that has been fully automated using a genetic algorithm. The predictive nature of simulations is achieved through the parametrisation of the mixing time model with known engine operating parameters such as speed, load and fuel injection strategy. It is shown that crank angle dependency of the mixing time improves the modelling of local inhomogeneity in the gas-phase for species mass fraction and temperature. In combination with an exact treatment of the non-linearity of reaction kinetics, it enables an accurate prediction of the rate of heat release, in-cylinder pressure and exhaust emissions, such as nitrogen oxides, unburned hydrocarbons and soot, from differently composed fuels. The method developed is particularly tailored for computationally efficient applications that focus on the details of reaction kinetics and the locality of combustion and emission formation in Diesel engines.

Thermo- and Fluid Dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines 2

Author : James H. Whitelaw
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3662105020
Total Pages : 494 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (621 download)

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Book Synopsis Thermo- and Fluid Dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines 2 by : James H. Whitelaw

Download or read book Thermo- and Fluid Dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines 2 written by James H. Whitelaw and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-04-17 with total page 494 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the second book edited with a selection of papers from the two-yearly THIESEL Conference on Thermo- and Fluid Dynamic Processes in Diesel Engines, organised by CMT-Mvtores Termicos of the Universidad Po/itecnica de Valencia, Spain. This volume includes versions of papers selected from those presented at the THIESEL 2002 Conference th held on lOth to 13 September 2002. We hope it will be the second volume of a long series reflecting the quality of the THIESEL Conference. This year, the papers are grouped in six main thematic areas: State of the Art and Prospective, Injection Systems and Spray Formation, Combustion and Emissions, Engine Modelling, Alternative Combustion Concepts and Experimental Techniques. The actual conference covered a wider scope of topics, including Air Management and Fuels for Diesel Engines and a couple of papers included reflect this variety. However, the selection of papers published here represents the most current preoccupations of Diesel engine designers, namely how to improve the combustion process using new injection strategies and alternative concepts such as the Homogeneous Charge Combustion Ignition.

Issues in Technology Theory, Research, and Application: 2013 Edition

Author :
Publisher : ScholarlyEditions
ISBN 13 : 1490110887
Total Pages : 1171 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Issues in Technology Theory, Research, and Application: 2013 Edition by :

Download or read book Issues in Technology Theory, Research, and Application: 2013 Edition written by and published by ScholarlyEditions. This book was released on 2013-05-01 with total page 1171 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Issues in Technology Theory, Research, and Application: 2013 Edition is a ScholarlyEditions™ book that delivers timely, authoritative, and comprehensive information about Ocean Technology. The editors have built Issues in Technology Theory, Research, and Application: 2013 Edition on the vast information databases of ScholarlyNews.™ You can expect the information about Ocean Technology in this book to be deeper than what you can access anywhere else, as well as consistently reliable, authoritative, informed, and relevant. The content of Issues in Technology Theory, Research, and Application: 2013 Edition has been produced by the world’s leading scientists, engineers, analysts, research institutions, and companies. All of the content is from peer-reviewed sources, and all of it is written, assembled, and edited by the editors at ScholarlyEditions™ and available exclusively from us. You now have a source you can cite with authority, confidence, and credibility. More information is available at http://www.ScholarlyEditions.com/.