The Radical Republicans and Reconstruction, 1861-1870

Download The Radical Republicans and Reconstruction, 1861-1870 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Indianapolis : Bobbs-Merrill
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 628 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Radical Republicans and Reconstruction, 1861-1870 by : Harold Melvin Hyman

Download or read book The Radical Republicans and Reconstruction, 1861-1870 written by Harold Melvin Hyman and published by Indianapolis : Bobbs-Merrill. This book was released on 1967 with total page 628 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

The Radical Republicans

Download The Radical Republicans PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Knopf
ISBN 13 : 0804153922
Total Pages : 668 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (41 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Radical Republicans by : Hans L. Trefousse

Download or read book The Radical Republicans written by Hans L. Trefousse and published by Knopf. This book was released on 2014-10-29 with total page 668 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This is the story of the men who, as political realists, fought for the cause of racial reform in America before, during, and after the Civil War. Charles Sumner, Thaddeus Stevens, Benjamin F. Wade, and Zachariah Chandler are the central figures in Mr. Trefousse's study of the Radical Republicans who steered a course between the extreme abolitionists on the one hand and the more cautious gradualists on the other, as they strove to break the slaveholder's domination of the federal government andthen to wrest from the postbellum South an acknowledgment of the civil rights of the Negro. The author delineates their key role in founding the Republican party and follows their struggle to keep the party firm in its opposition to the expansion of slavery, to commit it to emancipation, and finally to make it the party of racial justice. This is the story as well of the tangled relationship of the Radical Republicans with Abraham Lincoln—a relationship of both quarrels and mutual support. The author stresses the similarity between Lincoln's ultimate aims and those of the Radical Republicans, demonstrating that without Lincoln's support Sumner and his colleagues could never have accomplished their ends—and that without their help Lincoln might not have succeeded in crushing the rebellion and putting an end to the slavery. And he argues that by 1865 Lincoln's Reconstruction policies were nearing those of the Radicals and that, had he lived, they would not have broken with him as they did with his successor. Lincoln's assassination left the Radicals with no means to translate their demands into effective action. Their efforts to remake the South in such a way as to secure justice for the Negro brought them into conflict with President Johnson, in whose impeachment they played a leading role. Although they succeeded in initiating congressional Reconstruction and adding the fourteenth and fifteenth amendments to the Constitution, the Radicals lost power after the failure of the Johnson impeachment. Mr. Trefousse shows how, despite their declining influence throughout the 1870s, their accomplishments helped make possible—a century later—the resumption of the struggle for civil rights.

The Reconstruction Era and the Fragility of Democracy

Download The Reconstruction Era and the Fragility of Democracy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Facing History & Ourselves National Foundation, Incorporated
ISBN 13 : 9781940457468
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (574 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Reconstruction Era and the Fragility of Democracy by : Facing History and Ourselves

Download or read book The Reconstruction Era and the Fragility of Democracy written by Facing History and Ourselves and published by Facing History & Ourselves National Foundation, Incorporated. This book was released on 2017-11-22 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: provides history teachers with dozens of primary and secondary source documents, close reading exercises, lesson plans, and activity suggestions that will push students both to build a complex understanding of the dilemmas and conflicts Americans faced during Reconstruction.

Religion and the Radical Republican Movement

Download Religion and the Radical Republican Movement PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University Press of Kentucky
ISBN 13 : 081318181X
Total Pages : 445 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (131 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Religion and the Radical Republican Movement by : Victor B. Howard

Download or read book Religion and the Radical Republican Movement written by Victor B. Howard and published by University Press of Kentucky. This book was released on 2021-03-17 with total page 445 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “A distinctive contribution on the influence of Christians on Union politics during the Civil War era.” —Ohio History Religion and the Radical Republican Movement, 1860–1870 is a study of the interplay of religion and politics during the Civil War era. More specifically, it examines the extent to which religion set the moral tone of the North during the period of 1860 through 1870. Howard focuses on the growing influence of the evangelical and liberal churches during the period. This influence was largely exerted through the agency of the radical Republicans, a faction that took an extreme position on war measures and on reconstruction after the war. This book examines the degree to which radicalism was inspired by moral motivation and the action that followed the moral commitment. “The author’s prodigious research and stacks of quotations convincingly display the northern church’s commitment to black suffrage and to the era’s important congressional legislation bearing on black rights and other central Reconstruction issues.” —Choice

Reconstruction

Download Reconstruction PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Harper Collins
ISBN 13 : 006203586X
Total Pages : 742 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (62 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reconstruction by : Eric Foner

Download or read book Reconstruction written by Eric Foner and published by Harper Collins. This book was released on 2011-12-13 with total page 742 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the "preeminent historian of Reconstruction" (New York Times Book Review), a newly updated edition of the prize-winning classic work on the post-Civil War period which shaped modern America, with a new introduction from the author. Eric Foner's "masterful treatment of one of the most complex periods of American history" (New Republic) redefined how the post-Civil War period was viewed. Reconstruction chronicles the way in which Americans—black and white—responded to the unprecedented changes unleashed by the war and the end of slavery. It addresses the ways in which the emancipated slaves' quest for economic autonomy and equal citizenship shaped the political agenda of Reconstruction; the remodeling of Southern society and the place of planters, merchants, and small farmers within it; the evolution of racial attitudes and patterns of race relations; and the emergence of a national state possessing vastly expanded authority and committed, for a time, to the principle of equal rights for all Americans. This "smart book of enormous strengths" (Boston Globe) remains the standard work on the wrenching post-Civil War period—an era whose legacy still reverberates in the United States today.

Republican Party Politics and the American South, 1865–1968

Download Republican Party Politics and the American South, 1865–1968 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1107158435
Total Pages : 381 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (71 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Republican Party Politics and the American South, 1865–1968 by : Boris Heersink

Download or read book Republican Party Politics and the American South, 1865–1968 written by Boris Heersink and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2020-03-19 with total page 381 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Traces how the Republican Party in the South after Reconstruction transformed from a biracial organization to a mostly all-white one.

Women's Radical Reconstruction

Download Women's Radical Reconstruction PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of Pennsylvania Press
ISBN 13 : 0812203917
Total Pages : 210 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (122 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Women's Radical Reconstruction by : Carol Faulkner

Download or read book Women's Radical Reconstruction written by Carol Faulkner and published by University of Pennsylvania Press. This book was released on 2013-04-19 with total page 210 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this first critical study of female abolitionists and feminists in the freedmen's aid movement, Carol Faulkner describes these women's radical view of former slaves and the nation's responsibility to them. Moving beyond the image of the Yankee schoolmarm, Women's Radical Reconstruction demonstrates fully the complex and dynamic part played by Northern women in the design, implementation, and administration of Reconstruction policy. This absorbing account illustrates how these activists approached women's rights, the treatment of freed slaves, and the federal government's role in reorganizing Southern life. Like Radical Republicans, black and white women studied here advocated land reform, political and civil rights, and an activist federal government. They worked closely with the military, the Freedmen's Bureau, and Northern aid societies to provide food, clothes, housing, education, and employment to former slaves. These abolitionist-feminists embraced the Freedmen's Bureau, seeing it as both a shield for freedpeople and a vehicle for women's rights. But Faulkner rebuts historians who depict a community united by faith in free labor ideology, describing a movement torn by internal tensions. The author explores how gender conventions undermined women's efforts, as military personnel and many male reformers saw female reformers as encroaching on their territory, threatening their vision of a wage labor economy, and impeding the economic independence of former slaves. She notes the opportunities afforded to some middle-class black women, while also acknowledging the difficult ground they occupied between freed slaves and whites. Through compelling individual examples, she traces how female reformers found their commitment to gender solidarity across racial lines tested in the face of disagreements regarding the benefits of charity and the merits of paid employment.

Reconstruction in Texas

Download Reconstruction in Texas PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 562 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reconstruction in Texas by : Charles William Ramsdell

Download or read book Reconstruction in Texas written by Charles William Ramsdell and published by Studies in History, Economics, and Public Law. This book was released on 1910 with total page 562 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Presents an outline of a period in Texas history that has left a deep impress upon the later history, the political organization and the public mind of Texans.

Texas After The Civil War

Download Texas After The Civil War PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Texas A&M University Press
ISBN 13 : 9781585443628
Total Pages : 252 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (436 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Texas After The Civil War by : Carl H. Moneyhon

Download or read book Texas After The Civil War written by Carl H. Moneyhon and published by Texas A&M University Press. This book was released on 2004 with total page 252 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Moneyhon looks at the reasons Reconstruction failed to live up to its promise.

Reconstruction

Download Reconstruction PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190865695
Total Pages : 193 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (98 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reconstruction by : Allen C. Guelzo

Download or read book Reconstruction written by Allen C. Guelzo and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2018 with total page 193 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Allen C. Guelzo's Reconstruction: A Concise History is a gracefully written interpretation of Reconstruction as a spirited struggle to reintegrate the defeated Southern Confederacy into the American Union after the Civil War, to bring African Americans into the political mainstream of American life, and to recreate the Southern economy after a Northern free-labor model.

Statesmanship and Reconstruction

Download Statesmanship and Reconstruction PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Lexington Books
ISBN 13 : 073918508X
Total Pages : 369 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (391 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Statesmanship and Reconstruction by : Philip B. Lyons

Download or read book Statesmanship and Reconstruction written by Philip B. Lyons and published by Lexington Books. This book was released on 2014-10-24 with total page 369 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Besides massive race prejudice and the perceived vindictiveness of the radical Republicans, another factor that contributed strongly to the derailment of reconstruction after the Civil War was the conflicting decisions taken by the political leaders. Lincoln warned against differences between the friends of freedom, and to overcome these, took charge of the reconstruction of Louisiana and showed how it should be done by pitting benefits of enlightened free government against the prejudices of the populace. Unfortunately, his example was lost on his successor, Andrew Johnson, whose encouragement of Southern resistance to the North’s terms aggravated factionalism within the Republican party. The moderates dominated in the drafting of the Fourteenth Amendment, where they incorporated the statesmanlike principle of a benefit, self-government in exchange for Southerners protecting the rights of all their citizens, black and white. However, this statesmanlike bargain was practically abandoned in Congress’s response to the Southern states’ rejection of the Fourteenth Amendment, the Congressional Reconstructions Act. The fears of the moderates that the new state governments would not protect rights led them to propose universal suffrage, while the fears of the radicals that disloyal men would rule led them to provide for the disfranchisement of many ex-rebels and to hold any governments established, provisional only, subject to congressional change at will. As result the incentive for native white Southerners to participate in the new state governments in exchange for rights protection was drastically weakened. The consequences of this legislative "straight jacket" made it extremely difficult for Republicans in the defeated states to establish permanent political footholds. Some tried to hold onto power without attempting to cultivate native white support and lost their states for the Republicans. Three other leaders’ efforts to strike a balance between radicals and Democrats fell flat. Imprudent decisions of the Grant Administration shattered the attempts of three more states to establish a common ground with moderate Democrats. On the positive side, there was a leader in Virginia who figured out the kind of political arrangement necessary for Republicans to survive, and in Florida, a moderate Republican Governor, Ossian Bingley Hart, exercised real statesmanship to lead the most successful of all reconstruction governments. Statesmanship in reconstruction could have spared the South some severe hardships. Despite the vast change in public opinion on race relations over the last nearly 150 years, there are still lessons drawn from this study that can be applied to present day Civil Rights Policy.

Turning Points—Actual and Alternate Histories

Download Turning Points—Actual and Alternate Histories PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing USA
ISBN 13 : 1851098828
Total Pages : 273 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (51 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Turning Points—Actual and Alternate Histories by : Rodney P. Carlisle

Download or read book Turning Points—Actual and Alternate Histories written by Rodney P. Carlisle and published by Bloomsbury Publishing USA. This book was released on 2007-02-14 with total page 273 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This work is a creative approach to history that not only recounts what actually happened during the Civil War, but also imagines alternate outcomes had key events turned out differently, and how they might have changed the course of American history. In colorful, readable prose, this volume provides a full history of the Civil War—including John Brown's raid; the story of the Confederate States of America; the battles of Bull Run, Antietam, and Gettysburg; Sherman's March to the Sea; the Emancipation Proclamation; the Thirteenth Amendment; Lincoln's assassination; Reconstruction; and Andrew Johnson's impeachment. But more importantly, it offers a range of essays on how events could have turned out differently—militarily, politically, and culturally. It challenges students and general readers alike to remember that the course of history is not preordained. Instead, history is "made " in critical moments of decision by those who choose one course of action over another. Their choices—and the outcomes of those choices—could easily have been different.

America's Unending Civil War

Download America's Unending Civil War PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Frontline Books
ISBN 13 : 1399081217
Total Pages : 298 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (99 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis America's Unending Civil War by : William Nester

Download or read book America's Unending Civil War written by William Nester and published by Frontline Books. This book was released on 2025-06-30 with total page 298 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Civil War fascinates Americans like no other war in their history. Many Americans are still fighting some of the war’s issues in an Odyssey that stretches back to the first settlement and will persist until the end of time. The war itself was an Iliad of brilliant generals like Grant, Sherman, and Sheridan for the Union, or Lee, Jackson, and Forrest for the Confederacy; epic battles like Gettysburg and Chickamauga; epic sieges like Vicksburg and Petersburg; and epic naval combats such as Monitor versus Merrimack, or Kearsarge versus Alabama. It was America’s most horrific war, with more dead than all others combined. Around 625,000 soldiers and 125,000 civilians died from various causes, bringing the total to 750,000 people. Of 31 million Americans, 2.1 million northerners and 880,000 southerners donned uniforms. Why did eleven states eventually ban together to rebel against the United States? President Jefferson Davis began an answer when he said: ‘If the Confederacy falls, there should be written on its tombstone, Died of a Theory.’ That theory justified the enslavement of blacks by whites as a natural right and duty of a superior race over an inferior race; a theory, it was believed, that morally and economically elevated both races. Although slavery was the Civil War’s core cause, there were related chronic conflicts over the nature of government, citizenship, liberty, property, equality, wealth, race, identity, justice, crime, voting, power, and history – some of which issues have never entirely gone away. America’s Unending Civil War is unique among thousands of books on the subject. None before has explored the Civil War’s related and enduring conflicts of ideas and principles through four centuries of a nation’s history.

The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935

Download The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Univ of North Carolina Press
ISBN 13 : 0807898880
Total Pages : 383 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (78 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 by : James D. Anderson

Download or read book The Education of Blacks in the South, 1860-1935 written by James D. Anderson and published by Univ of North Carolina Press. This book was released on 2010-01-27 with total page 383 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: James Anderson critically reinterprets the history of southern black education from Reconstruction to the Great Depression. By placing black schooling within a political, cultural, and economic context, he offers fresh insights into black commitment to education, the peculiar significance of Tuskegee Institute, and the conflicting goals of various philanthropic groups, among other matters. Initially, ex-slaves attempted to create an educational system that would support and extend their emancipation, but their children were pushed into a system of industrial education that presupposed black political and economic subordination. This conception of education and social order--supported by northern industrial philanthropists, some black educators, and most southern school officials--conflicted with the aspirations of ex-slaves and their descendants, resulting at the turn of the century in a bitter national debate over the purposes of black education. Because blacks lacked economic and political power, white elites were able to control the structure and content of black elementary, secondary, normal, and college education during the first third of the twentieth century. Nonetheless, blacks persisted in their struggle to develop an educational system in accordance with their own needs and desires.

Race and Ethnicity in America [4 volumes]

Download Race and Ethnicity in America [4 volumes] PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing USA
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 1972 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (161 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Race and Ethnicity in America [4 volumes] by : Russell M. Lawson

Download or read book Race and Ethnicity in America [4 volumes] written by Russell M. Lawson and published by Bloomsbury Publishing USA. This book was released on 2019-10-11 with total page 1972 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Divided into four volumes, Race and Ethnicity in America provides a complete overview of the history of racial and ethnic relations in America, from pre-contact to the present. The five hundred years since Europeans made contact with the indigenous peoples of America have been dominated by racial and ethnic tensions. During the colonial period, from 1500 to 1776, slavery and servitude of whites, blacks, and Indians formed the foundation for race and ethnic relations. After the American Revolution, slavery, labor inequalities, and immigration led to racial and ethnic tensions; after the Civil War, labor inequalities, immigration, and the fight for civil rights dominated America's racial and ethnic experience. From the 1960s to the present, the unfulfilled promise of civil rights for all ethnic and racial groups in America has been the most important sociopolitical issue in America. Race and Ethnicity in America tells this story of the fight for equality in America. The first volume spans pre-contact to the American Revolution; the second, the American Revolution to the Civil War; the third, Reconstruction to the Civil Rights Movement; and the fourth, the Civil Rights Movement to the present. All volumes explore the culture, society, labor, war and politics, and cultural expressions of racial and ethnic groups.

Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era [2 volumes]

Download Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era [2 volumes] PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing USA
ISBN 13 : 0313013993
Total Pages : 933 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (13 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era [2 volumes] by : Richard Zuczek

Download or read book Encyclopedia of the Reconstruction Era [2 volumes] written by Richard Zuczek and published by Bloomsbury Publishing USA. This book was released on 2006-08-30 with total page 933 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Reconstruction sought to bring order from the tremendous social, political, economic, physical, and constitutional changes wrought by secession and the Civil War, changes that included the abolition of slavery, the expansion of governmental power and constitutional jurisdiction, the rise of the Republican Party, the explosion of northern industry and the national market, and the appearance of a social dynamism that supported struggles by new social groups for political and civil equality. In American history, Reconstruction is the term applied to the period 1862-1877, when the United States sought to bring order from the tremendous social, political, economic, physical, and constitutional changes wrought by secession and the Civil War.The decision by eleven southern states to attempt secession and reject the national government, and the decision by the federal government under President Abraham Lincoln to deny that attempt and enforce federal law, unleashed forces that forever changed the American Republic. These changes included the abolition of slavery, the expansion of governmental power and constitutional jurisdiction, the rise of the Republican Party, the explosion of northern industry and the national market, and the appearance of a social dynamism that supported struggles by new social groups for political and civil equality. No one anticipated the totality, the viciousness, and the intensity of the civil war, and as a result no one was prepared to deal with its consequences. Topics covered include who should direct Reconstruction; how the federal government treated conquered states, their governments, and their soldiers; the role of the freed people in the new republic; and how the war altered the Constitution, the party system, and the American economy, among many others. Many entries describe and analyze the lives, careers, and impacts of the individuals, North and South, black and white, who shaped the course of Reconstruction, including the following: Ames, Adelbert Bruce, Blanche K. Douglass, Frederick Gordon, John B. Hancock, Winfield S. Howard, Oliver O. Pinchback, Pinckney B.S. Revels, Hiram R. Sheridan, Philip H. Wade, Benjamin F. Other entries deal with broad topics and themes related to Reconstruction and its consequences, including the following: Abolition of Slavery, Black Politicians, Black Suffrage, Bloody Shirt, Economic Policies, Race Riots, Reconstruction, Theories of Scandals During Reconstruction, State Constitutional Conventions, Violence During Reconstruction. Still other entries cover a wide variety of events, groups, acts, agencies, and amendments that were part of the story of Reconstruction, including the following: American Indians, Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned Lands Compromise of 1877, Democratic Party, Fourteenth Amendment, Joint Committee on Reconstruction, Loyalty Oaths, Military Reconstruction Acts, Stalwarts, Tenure of Office Act. Among the more than 270 entries are 11 that discuss the course and consequences of Reconstruction in each of the former Confederate states, and 6 that discuss the outcome and significance of the presidential and key congressional elections held between 1864 and 1876. The encyclopedia also offers a timeline of Reconstruction, a bibliography of print and electronic information resources, a selection of primary documents, a table of important dates, numerous illustrations, and a detailed subject index.

An Agrarian Republic

Download An Agrarian Republic PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : UNC Press Books
ISBN 13 : 146961992X
Total Pages : 241 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (696 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis An Agrarian Republic by : Adam Wesley Dean

Download or read book An Agrarian Republic written by Adam Wesley Dean and published by UNC Press Books. This book was released on 2015-02-16 with total page 241 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The familiar story of the Civil War tells of a predominately agricultural South pitted against a rapidly industrializing North. However, Adam Wesley Dean argues that the Republican Party's political ideology was fundamentally agrarian. Believing that small farms owned by families for generations led to a model society, Republicans supported a northern agricultural ideal in opposition to southern plantation agriculture, which destroyed the land's productivity, required constant western expansion, and produced an elite landed gentry hostile to the Union. Dean shows how agrarian republicanism shaped the debate over slavery's expansion, spurred the creation of the Department of Agriculture and the passage of the Homestead Act, and laid the foundation for the development of the earliest nature parks. Spanning the long nineteenth century, Dean's study analyzes the changing debate over land development as it transitioned from focusing on the creation of a virtuous and orderly citizenry to being seen primarily as a "civilizing" mission. By showing Republicans as men and women with backgrounds in small farming, Dean unveils new connections between seemingly separate historical events, linking this era's views of natural and manmade environments with interpretations of slavery and land policy.