The Cross-Section of Speculator Skill

Download The Cross-Section of Speculator Skill PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 44 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (129 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Cross-Section of Speculator Skill by : Brad M. Barber

Download or read book The Cross-Section of Speculator Skill written by Brad M. Barber and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 44 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: We document economically large cross-sectional differences in the before- and after-fee returns earned by speculative traders. We establish this result by focusing on day traders in Taiwan from 1992 to 2006. We argue that these traders are almost certainly speculative traders given their short holding period. We sort day traders based on their returns in year y and analyze their subsequent day trading performance in year y 1; the 500 top-ranked day traders go on to earn daily before-fee (after-fee) returns of 61.3 (37.9) basis points (bps) per day; bottom-ranked day traders go on to earn daily before-fee (after-fee) returns of -11.5 (-28.9) bps per day. The spread in returns between top-ranked and bottom-ranked speculators exceeds 70 bps per day. However, less than 1% of the total population of day traders is able to predictably and reliably earn positive abnormal returns net of fees. Our results contribute to the evidence that cross-sectional variation in investor skill is an important feature of financial markets.

The Elements of Choice

Download The Elements of Choice PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 0593084438
Total Pages : 401 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (93 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Elements of Choice by : Eric J. Johnson

Download or read book The Elements of Choice written by Eric J. Johnson and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2021-10-12 with total page 401 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A leader in decision-making research reveals how choices are designed—and why it’s so important to understand their inner workings Every time we make a choice, our minds go through an elaborate process most of us never even notice. We’re influenced by subtle aspects of the way the choice is presented that often make the difference between a good decision and a bad one. How do we overcome the common faults in our decision-making and enable better choices in any situation? The answer lies in more conscious and intentional decision design. Going well beyond the familiar concepts of nudges and defaults, The Elements of Choice offers a comprehensive, systematic guide to creating effective choice architectures, the environments in which we make decisions. The designers of decisions need to consider all the elements involved in presenting a choice: how many options to offer, how to present those options, how to account for our natural cognitive shortcuts, and much more. These levers are unappreciated and we’re often unaware of just how much they influence our reasoning every day. Eric J. Johnson is the lead researcher behind some of the most well-known and cited research on decision-making. He draws on his original studies and extensive work in business and public policy and synthesizes the latest research in the field to reveal how the structure of choices affects outcomes. We are all choice architects, for ourselves and for others. Whether you’re helping students choose the right school, helping patients pick the best health insurance plan, or deciding how to invest for your own retirement, this book provides the tools you need to guide anyone to the decision that’s right for them.

Shut Up and Keep Talking

Download Shut Up and Keep Talking PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Harriman House Limited
ISBN 13 : 0857199226
Total Pages : 480 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (571 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Shut Up and Keep Talking by : Bob Pisani

Download or read book Shut Up and Keep Talking written by Bob Pisani and published by Harriman House Limited. This book was released on 2022-10-18 with total page 480 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Bob Pisani is Senior Markets Correspondent for CNBC and has spent the past 25 years on the floor of the New York Stock Exchange. He has been on the front line of finance for all the major events of the last quarter century, including the Asian Financial Crisis, the dot-com bubble and collapse, the terrorist attacks of 9/11, and the Great Financial Crisis. What was it like to witness these events firsthand, at the center of the financial world? In Shut Up and Keep Talking, Bob tells a series of captivating stories that reveal what he has learned about life and investing. These include encounters with a host of stars, world leaders and CEOs, including Fidel Castro, Robert Downey Jr., Walter Cronkite, Aretha Franklin, Barry Manilow, Jack Ma, Joey Ramone, and many more. Along the way, Bob describes how the investment world has changed, from brokers shouting on the floor of the NYSE to fully electronic trading, from investment sages and superstars picking stocks for exorbitant fees to the phenomenal rise of low-cost index funds that are saving investors millions, and from the belief that investors make rational decisions to the new age of behavioral finance, which recognizes the often-irrational nature of human decision making and seeks to understand its role in the stock market. Bob also considers what really moves stocks up and down and tackles the big questions: why is stock picking so hard, and why is the future so unknowable? Don’t miss this highly entertaining and revealing account of how financial markets have changed, and how they really work, from someone who was there.

Financial Behavior

Download Financial Behavior PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190270012
Total Pages : 681 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (92 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Financial Behavior by : H. Kent Baker

Download or read book Financial Behavior written by H. Kent Baker and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2017-05-02 with total page 681 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Financial Behavior: Players, Services, Products, and Markets provides a synthesis of the theoretical and empirical literature on the financial behavior of major stakeholders, financial services, investment products, and financial markets. The book offers a different way of looking at financial and emotional well-being and processing beliefs, emotions, and behaviors related to money. The book provides important insights about cognitive and emotional biases that influence various financial decision-makers, services, products, and markets. With diverse concepts and topics, the book brings together noted scholars and practitioners so readers can gain an in-depth understanding about this topic from experts from around the world. In today's financial setting, the discipline of behavioral finance is an ever-changing area that continues to evolve at a rapid pace. This book takes readers through the core topics and issues as well as the latest trends, cutting-edge research developments, and real-world situations. Additionally, discussion of research on various cognitive and emotional issues is covered throughout the book. Thus, this volume covers a breadth of content from theoretical to practical, while attempting to offer a useful balance of detailed and user-friendly coverage. Those interested in a broad survey will benefit as will those searching for more in-depth presentations of specific areas within this field of study. As the seventh book in the Financial Markets and Investment Series, Financial Behavior: Players, Services, Products, and Markets offers a fresh looks at the fascinating area of financial behavior.

The Foundations of Behavioral Economic Analysis

Download The Foundations of Behavioral Economic Analysis PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press, USA
ISBN 13 : 019885367X
Total Pages : 354 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (988 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Foundations of Behavioral Economic Analysis by : Sanjit Dhami

Download or read book The Foundations of Behavioral Economic Analysis written by Sanjit Dhami and published by Oxford University Press, USA. This book was released on 2020-01-02 with total page 354 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This fifth volume of The Foundations of Behavioral Economic Analysis covers behavioral models of learning. It is an essential guide for advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students seeking a concise and focused text on this important subject, and examines heuristics and biases in judgment and decision making, mental accounting, and behavioral finance and bounded rationality. This updated extract from Dhami's leading textbook allows the reader to pursue subsections of this vast and rapidly growing field and to tailor their reading to their specific interests in behavioral economics.

Behavioral Finance: The Second Generation

Download Behavioral Finance: The Second Generation PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : CFA Institute Research Foundation
ISBN 13 : 1944960864
Total Pages : 255 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (449 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Behavioral Finance: The Second Generation by : Meir Statman

Download or read book Behavioral Finance: The Second Generation written by Meir Statman and published by CFA Institute Research Foundation. This book was released on 2019-12-02 with total page 255 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Behavioral finance presented in this book is the second-generation of behavioral finance. The first generation, starting in the early 1980s, largely accepted standard finance’s notion of people’s wants as “rational” wants—restricted to the utilitarian benefits of high returns and low risk. That first generation commonly described people as “irrational”—succumbing to cognitive and emotional errors and misled on their way to their rational wants. The second generation describes people as normal. It begins by acknowledging the full range of people’s normal wants and their benefits—utilitarian, expressive, and emotional—distinguishes normal wants from errors, and offers guidance on using shortcuts and avoiding errors on the way to satisfying normal wants. People’s normal wants include financial security, nurturing children and families, gaining high social status, and staying true to values. People’s normal wants, even more than their cognitive and emotional shortcuts and errors, underlie answers to important questions of finance, including saving and spending, portfolio construction, asset pricing, and market efficiency.

Handbook of the Economics of Finance

Download Handbook of the Economics of Finance PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Newnes
ISBN 13 : 0444594736
Total Pages : 873 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (445 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Handbook of the Economics of Finance by : George M. Constantinides

Download or read book Handbook of the Economics of Finance written by George M. Constantinides and published by Newnes. This book was released on 2013-02-08 with total page 873 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The 12 articles in this second of two parts condense recent advances on investment vehicles, performance measurement and evaluation, and risk management into a coherent springboard for future research. Written by world leaders in asset pricing research, they present scholarship about the 2008 financial crisis in contexts that highlight both continuity and divergence in research. For those who seek authoritative perspectives and important details, this volume shows how the boundaries of asset pricing have expanded and at the same time have grown sharper and more inclusive. Offers analyses by top scholars of recent asset pricing scholarship Explains how the 2008 financial crises affected theoretical and empirical research Covers core and newly developing fields

The Responsible Shareholder

Download The Responsible Shareholder PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Edward Elgar Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1800373406
Total Pages : 232 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (3 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Responsible Shareholder by : Bottomley, Stephen

Download or read book The Responsible Shareholder written by Bottomley, Stephen and published by Edward Elgar Publishing. This book was released on 2021-11-09 with total page 232 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Examining the role of shareholders in modern companies, this timely book argues that more should be expected of shareholders, both morally and legally. It explores the privileged position of shareholders within the corporate law system and the unique rights and duties awarded to them in contrast to other corporate actors. Introducing the concept of shareholders as responsible agents whose actions and inactions should be judged on that basis, Stephen Bottomley unites a number of distinct corporate governance discussions including stewardship, activism and shareholder liability.

Pound Foolish

Download Pound Foolish PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Penguin
ISBN 13 : 159184679X
Total Pages : 306 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (918 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Pound Foolish by : Helaine Olen

Download or read book Pound Foolish written by Helaine Olen and published by Penguin. This book was released on 2013-12-31 with total page 306 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: If you’ve ever bought a personal finance book, watched a TV show about stock picking, listened to a radio show about getting out of debt, or attended a seminar to help you plan for your retirement, you’ve probably heard some version of these quotes: “What’s keeping you from being rich? In most cases, it is simply a lack of belief.” —SUZE ORMAN, The Courage to Be Rich “Are you latte-ing away your financial future?” —DAVID BACH, Smart Women Finish Rich “I know you’re capable of picking winning stocks and holding on to them.” —JIM CRAMER, Mad Money They’re common refrains among personal finance gurus. There’s just one problem: those and many simi­lar statements are false. For the past few decades, Americans have spent billions of dollars on personal finance products. As salaries have stagnated and companies have cut back on benefits, we’ve taken matters into our own hands, embracing the can-do attitude that if we’re smart enough, we can overcome even daunting financial obstacles. But that’s not true. In this meticulously reported and shocking book, journalist and former financial columnist Helaine Olen goes behind the curtain of the personal finance industry to expose the myths, contradictions, and outright lies it has perpetuated. She shows how an industry that started as a response to the Great Depression morphed into a behemoth that thrives by selling us products and services that offer little if any help. Olen calls out some of the biggest names in the business, revealing how even the most respected gurus have engaged in dubious, even deceitful, prac­tices—from accepting payments from banks and corporations in exchange for promoting certain prod­ucts to blaming the victims of economic catastrophe for their own financial misfortune. Pound Foolish also disproves many myths about spending and saving, including: Small pleasures can bankrupt you: Gurus popular­ized the idea that cutting out lattes and other small expenditures could make us millionaires. But reduc­ing our caffeine consumption will not offset our biggest expenses: housing, education, health care, and retirement. Disciplined investing will make you rich: Gurus also love to show how steady investing can turn modest savings into a huge nest egg at retirement. But these calculations assume a healthy market and a lifetime without any setbacks—two conditions that have no connection to the real world. Women need extra help managing money: Product pushers often target women, whose alleged financial ignorance supposedly leaves them especially at risk. In reality, women and men are both terrible at han­dling finances. Financial literacy classes will prevent future eco­nomic crises: Experts like to claim mandatory sessions on personal finance in school will cure many of our money ills. Not only is there little evidence this is true, the entire movement is largely funded and promoted by the financial services sector. Weaving together original reporting, interviews with experts, and studies from disciplines ranging from behavioral economics to retirement planning,Pound Foolish is a compassionate and compelling book that will change the way we think and talk about our money.

Leveraged Trading

Download Leveraged Trading PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Harriman House Limited
ISBN 13 : 0857197223
Total Pages : 277 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (571 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Leveraged Trading by : Robert Carver

Download or read book Leveraged Trading written by Robert Carver and published by Harriman House Limited. This book was released on 2019-10-29 with total page 277 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With the right broker, and just a few hundred dollars or pounds, anyone can become a leveraged trader. The products and tools needed are accessible to all: FX, a margin account, CFDs, spread-bets and futures. But this level playing field comes with great risks. Trading with leverage is inherently dangerous. With leverage, losses and costs – the two great killers for traders – are magnified. This does not mean leverage must be avoided altogether, but it does mean that it needs to be used safely. In Leveraged Trading, Robert Carver shows you how to do exactly that, by using a trading system. A trading system can be employed to tackle those twin dangers of serious losses and high costs. The trading systems introduced in this book are simple and carefully designed to use the correct amount of leverage and trade at a suitable frequency. Robert shows how to trade a simple Starter System on its own, on a single instrument and with a single rule for opening positions. He then moves on to show how the Starter System can be adapted, as you gain experience and confidence. The system can be diversified into multiple instruments and new trading rules can be added. For those who wish to go further still, advice on making more complex improvements is included: how to develop your own trading systems, and how to combine a system with your own human judgement, using an approach Robert calls Semi-Automatic Trading. For those trading with leverage, looking for a way to take a controlled approach and manage risk, a properly designed trading system is the answer. Pick up Leveraged Trading and learn how.

Behavioral Finance

Download Behavioral Finance PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190868767
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (98 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Behavioral Finance by : H. Kent Baker

Download or read book Behavioral Finance written by H. Kent Baker and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2019-02-01 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: People tend to be penny wise and pound foolish and cry over spilt milk, even though we are taught to do neither. Focusing on the present at the expense of the future and basing decisions on lost value are two mistakes common to decision-making that are particularly costly in the world of finance. Behavioral Finance: What Everyone Needs to KnowR provides an overview of common shortcuts and mistakes people make in managing their finances. It covers the common cognitive biases or errors that occur when people are collecting, processing, and interpreting information. These include emotional biases and the influence of social factors, from culture to the behavior of one's peers. These effects vary during one's life, reflecting differences in due to age, experience, and gender. Among the questions to be addressed are: How did the financial crisis of 2007-2008 spur understanding human behavior? What are market anomalies and how do they relate to behavioral biases? What role does overconfidence play in financial decision- making? And how does getting older affect risk tolerance?

Handbook of the Economics of Finance SET:Volumes 2A & 2B

Download Handbook of the Economics of Finance SET:Volumes 2A & 2B PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Newnes
ISBN 13 : 0444594655
Total Pages : 1732 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (445 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Handbook of the Economics of Finance SET:Volumes 2A & 2B by : George M. Constantinides

Download or read book Handbook of the Economics of Finance SET:Volumes 2A & 2B written by George M. Constantinides and published by Newnes. This book was released on 2013-01-21 with total page 1732 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This two-volume set of 23 articles authoritatively describes recent scholarship in corporate finance and asset pricing. Volume 1 concentrates on corporate finance, encompassing topics such as financial innovation and securitization, dynamic security design, and family firms. Volume 2 focuses on asset pricing with articles on market liquidity, credit derivatives, and asset pricing theory, among others. Both volumes present scholarship about the 2008 financial crisis in contexts that highlight both continuity and divergence in research. For those who seek insightful perspectives and important details, they demonstrate how corporate finance studies have interpreted recent events and incorporated their lessons. Covers core and newly-developing fields Explains how the 2008 financial crises affected theoretical and empirical research Exposes readers to a wide range of subjects described and analyzed by the best scholars

Finance for Normal People

Download Finance for Normal People PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 019062647X
Total Pages : 489 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Finance for Normal People by : Meir Statman

Download or read book Finance for Normal People written by Meir Statman and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2017 with total page 489 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Finance for Normal People teaches behavioral finance to people like you and me - normal people, neither rational nor irrational. We are consumers, savers, investors, and managers - corporate managers, money managers, financial advisers, and all other financial professionals. The book guides us to know our wants-including hope for riches, protection from poverty, caring for family, sincere social responsibility and high social status. It teaches financial facts and human behavior, including making cognitive and emotional shortcuts and avoiding cognitive and emotional errors such as overconfidence, hindsight, exaggerated fear, and unrealistic hope. And it guides us to banish ignorance, gain knowledge, and increase the ratio of smart to foolish behavior on our way to what we want. These lessons of behavioral finance draw on what we know about us-normal people-including our wants, cognition, and emotions. And they draw on the roles of these factors in saving and spending, portfolio construction, returns we can expect from our investments, and whether we can hope to beat the market. Meir Statman, a founder of behavioral finance, draws on his extensive research and the research of many others to build a unified structure of behavioral finance. Its foundation blocks include normal behavior, behavioral portfolio theory, behavioral life-cycle theory, behavioral asset pricing theory, and behavioral market efficiency.

A Research Agenda for Consumer Financial Behavior

Download A Research Agenda for Consumer Financial Behavior PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Edward Elgar Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1803922656
Total Pages : 349 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (39 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis A Research Agenda for Consumer Financial Behavior by : Jing J. Xiao

Download or read book A Research Agenda for Consumer Financial Behavior written by Jing J. Xiao and published by Edward Elgar Publishing. This book was released on 2023-06-01 with total page 349 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With contributions from an international range of active researchers, this Research Agenda provides a timely literature review on core topics related to consumer financial behavior. Chapters cover financial management behavior, desirable financial behavior and any financial behavior that helps improve financial wellbeing.

Hype Machine: How Greed, Fraud and Free Money Crashed Crypto

Download Hype Machine: How Greed, Fraud and Free Money Crashed Crypto PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Heligo Books
ISBN 13 : 1785120980
Total Pages : 268 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (851 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Hype Machine: How Greed, Fraud and Free Money Crashed Crypto by : Joshua Oliver

Download or read book Hype Machine: How Greed, Fraud and Free Money Crashed Crypto written by Joshua Oliver and published by Heligo Books. This book was released on 2024-03-14 with total page 268 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 'A gripping real-life financial thriller.' CLAER BARRETT, AUTHOR OF WHAT THEY DON'T TEACH YOU ABOUT MONEY 'Anybody who wants to understand the cryptocurrency mania should read Hype Machine.' LIONEL BARBER, FORMER EDITOR OF THE FINANCIAL TIMES On 2 November 2023, in one of the largest fraud trials in history, Sam Bankman-Fried was found guilty of stealing billions of dollars from the customers of his crypto-exchange, FTX. How did this 31-year-old Californian in shorts and a T-shirt manage to become one of the most famous CEOs in the world? How did greed, fear and free money inflate the crypto bubble until it finally popped with devastating consequences for millions of people who lost money in the crash? Who were the enablers, investors and innovators who transformed the original promise of crypto into a digital Wild West? Hype Machine is the definitive story of the boom and bust of crypto, written by award-winning Financial Times journalist Joshua Oliver. Expansive, nuanced and eminently entertaining, it demystifies the crypto circus by following the journeys of its most influential participants and the trajectory of SBF, its enigmatic ringmaster. Oliver, who reported on the crypto crash with extensive access to SBF himself, introduces readers to the people and ideas that shaped crypto's wild rise and fall, including Arthur Hayes, Changpeng Zhao and the coterie of acolytes who surrounded FTX. Through exclusive interviews, compelling research and with ringside seats at the trial of the decade, he paints a vivid, detailed and tragi-comic picture of this defining financial moment of our times.

The Klein Tradition

Download The Klein Tradition PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 0429832583
Total Pages : 594 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (298 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Klein Tradition by : Kay Long

Download or read book The Klein Tradition written by Kay Long and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018-05-01 with total page 594 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Melanie Klein's extension of Freud's ideas - in particular her explorations into the world of the infant and her emphasis on the complex interactions between the infant's internal world of powerful primitive emotions of love and hate and the mothering that the infant receives - were greeted with skepticism but are now widely accepted as providing an invaluable way of understanding human cognitive and emotional development. Klein's insights shed light on persecuted states, guilt, the drive to create and to repair; they also provide the clinician with a theory of technique. Klein's work has inspired the work of psychoanalysts around the world. Her concept of projective identification with its implications for the understanding of countertransference made a significant impact on her followers and on psychoanalysts in other countries and from other schools of thought. Further exploration of these ideas has led to greater understanding of how change occurs in psychoanalysis and has inspired a large literature with a particular focus on technique.

Built Up

Download Built Up PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1000367975
Total Pages : 577 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (3 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Built Up by : Patrice Derrington

Download or read book Built Up written by Patrice Derrington and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2021-04-25 with total page 577 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Built Up uncovers the roots of the global real estate industry in the machinations of a patron of Shakespeare, the merged lineages of business savvy women and men, startlingly innovative collaborations with the first English architect, and the radical explorations of other denizens of early modern London – and what those colorful origins mean for the practice of property development today. Uniting insights from the author’s career as an internationally recognized developer with meticulous archival research, this resource for scholars and professionals synthesizes economic history and the latest planning and finance literature. The result is an unprecedented effort to codify the principles and activities of real estate development as a foundation for future academic research and practical innovation. By tracing the evolution of property development to its earliest days, Built Up establishes the theoretical groundwork for the next phase in the transformation of the urban environment.