Servants of the Dynasty

Download Servants of the Dynasty PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Univ of California Press
ISBN 13 : 0520254449
Total Pages : 796 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (22 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Servants of the Dynasty by : Anne Walthall

Download or read book Servants of the Dynasty written by Anne Walthall and published by Univ of California Press. This book was released on 2008 with total page 796 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book offers a new perspective on the monarchies that have dominated much of human history, by offering a comparative view of the women who lived, worked, and served in royal courts around the globe. The authors of this volume, historians, anthropologists, and archeologists, investigate women's roles in each era and locale, how those roles changed over time, and what women's histories say about the structures of power and the societies in which they lived. The authors take us to palaces in Early modern Southeast Asia, classic Maya royal courts, the Byzantine court, the harem of the Ottoman royal court, the Mughal palace, an African royal harem, the courts of Chinese Emperors and Empresses, the palace of the Shogun, the court of Versailles, Aztec palaces, and a Korean court.

Inside the World of the Eunuch

Download Inside the World of the Eunuch PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Hong Kong University Press
ISBN 13 : 9888455753
Total Pages : 236 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (884 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Inside the World of the Eunuch by : Melissa S. Dale

Download or read book Inside the World of the Eunuch written by Melissa S. Dale and published by Hong Kong University Press. This book was released on 2018-11-01 with total page 236 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The history of Qing palace eunuchs is defined by a tension between the role eunuchs were meant to play and the life they intended to live. This study tells the story of how a complicated and much-maligned group of people struggled to insert a degree of agency into their lives. Rulers of the Qing dynasty were determined to ensure the eunuchs’ subservience and to limit their influence by imposing a management style based upon strict rules, corporal punishment, and collective responsibility. Few eunuchs wielded significant political power or lived in a lavish style during the Qing dynasty. Emasculation and employment in the palace placed eunuchs at the center of the empire, yet also subjected them to servile status and marginalization by society. Seeking more control over their lives, eunuchs serving the Qing repeatedly tested the boundaries of subservience to the emperor and the imperial court. This portrait of eunuch society reveals that Qing palace eunuchs operated within two parallel realms, one revolving around the emperor and the court by day and another among the eunuchs themselves by night where they recreated the social bonds—through drinking, gambling, and opium smoking—denied them by their palace service. Far from being the ideal servants, eunuchs proved to be a constant source of anxiety and labor challenges for the Qing court. For a long time eunuchs have simply been cast as villains in Chinese history. Inside the World of the Eunuch goes beyond this misleadingly one-dimensional depiction to show how eunuchs actually lived during the Qing dynasty. “This book is a thorough and responsible account of eunuch life during the Qing dynasty, which takes us deep inside the Forbidden City and introduces the often underclass families who provided servants to the Qing monarchs.” —R. Kent Guy, University of Washington “This is a unique study of Chinese eunuchs, in which Melissa Dale proves that they were a necessary and vital presence in the palace of the last dynasty in China. She explores all aspects of their life to the end of their existence, while avoiding the temptation to sensationalize them.” —Keith McMahon, University of Kansas

Gender and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe, 1400-1800

Download Gender and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe, 1400-1800 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1134883919
Total Pages : 258 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (348 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Gender and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe, 1400-1800 by : James Daybell

Download or read book Gender and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe, 1400-1800 written by James Daybell and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-07-01 with total page 258 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Gender and Political Culture in Early Modern Europe investigates the gendered nature of political culture across early modern Europe by exploring the relationship between gender, power, and political authority and influence. This collection offers a rethinking of what constituted ‘politics’ and a reconsideration of how men and women operated as part of political culture. It demonstrates how underlying structures could enable or constrain political action, and how political power and influence could be exercised through social and cultural practices. The book is divided into four parts - diplomacy, gifts and the politics of exchange; socio-economic structures; gendered politics at court; and voting and political representations – each of which looks at a series of interrelated themes exploring the ways in which political culture is inflected by questions of gender. In addition to examples drawn from across Europe, including Austria, the Dutch Republic, the Italian States and Scandinavia, the volume also takes a transnational comparative approach, crossing national borders, while the concluding chapter, by Merry Wiesner-Hanks, offers a global perspective on the field and encourages comparative analysis both chronologically and geographically. As the first collection to draw together early modern gender and political culture, this book is the perfect starting point for students exploring this fascinating topic.

Masters and servants

Download Masters and servants PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Manchester University Press
ISBN 13 : 1784997935
Total Pages : 316 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (849 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Masters and servants by : Claire Lowrie

Download or read book Masters and servants written by Claire Lowrie and published by Manchester University Press. This book was released on 2016-05-01 with total page 316 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Illustrates the centrality of domestic politics to colonial rule and the ways in which mastery over servants was a key expression of colonial power

Saints and Servants in Southern Morocco

Download Saints and Servants in Southern Morocco PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 9004491716
Total Pages : 302 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (44 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Saints and Servants in Southern Morocco by : Remco Ensel

Download or read book Saints and Servants in Southern Morocco written by Remco Ensel and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2022-10-24 with total page 302 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This anthropological monograph on a persistent form of social inequality in the Maghreb, examines the affinities between ancient hierarchical categorization and new form to impress social ranking in a modern nation-state, showing how hierarchical ideas are instilled and contested in everyday life.

History of Education in the Yuan Dynasty

Download History of Education in the Yuan Dynasty PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis History of Education in the Yuan Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book History of Education in the Yuan Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “History of Education in the Yuan Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

The Political History in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasty 

Download The Political History in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasty  PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Political History in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasty  by : Li Shi

Download or read book The Political History in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasty  written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “The Political History in Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasty ” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

Colonialism and Male Domestic Service across the Asia Pacific

Download Colonialism and Male Domestic Service across the Asia Pacific PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Bloomsbury Publishing
ISBN 13 : 135005674X
Total Pages : 280 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (5 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Colonialism and Male Domestic Service across the Asia Pacific by : Julia Martínez

Download or read book Colonialism and Male Domestic Service across the Asia Pacific written by Julia Martínez and published by Bloomsbury Publishing. This book was released on 2018-11-29 with total page 280 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Examining the role of Asian and indigenous male servants across the Asia Pacific from the late-19th century to the 1930s, this study shows how their ubiquitous presence in these purportedly 'humble' jobs gave them a degree of cultural influence that has been largely overlooked in the literature on labour mobility in the age of empire. With case studies from British Hong Kong, Singapore, Northern Australia, Fiji and British Columbia, French Indochina, the American Philippines and the Dutch East Indies, the book delves into the intimate and often conflicted relationships between European and American colonists and their servants. It explores the lives of 'houseboys', cooks and gardeners in the colonial home, considers the bell-boys and waiters in the grand colonial hotels, and follows the stewards and cabin-boys on steamships travelling across the Indian and Pacific Oceans. This broad conception of service allows Colonialism and Male Domestic Service to illuminate trans-colonial or cross-border influences through the mobility of servants and their employers. This path-breaking study is an important book for students and scholars of colonialism, labour history and the Asia Pacific region.

Inside the World of the Eunuch

Download Inside the World of the Eunuch PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9789888455607
Total Pages : 237 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (556 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Inside the World of the Eunuch by : Melissa S. Dale

Download or read book Inside the World of the Eunuch written by Melissa S. Dale and published by . This book was released on 2018 with total page 237 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The history of Qing palace eunuchs is defined by a tension between the role eunuchs were meant to play and the life they intended to live. This study tells the story of how a complicated and much-maligned group of people struggled to insert a degree of agency into their lives. Rulers of the Qing dynasty were determined to ensure the eunuchs' subservience and to limit their influence by imposing a management style based upon strict rules, corporal punishment, and collective responsibility. Few eunuchs wielded significant political power or lived in a lavish style during the Qing dynasty. Emascu.

Servant of Mut

Download Servant of Mut PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : BRILL
ISBN 13 : 900415857X
Total Pages : 294 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (41 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Servant of Mut by : Sue D'Auria

Download or read book Servant of Mut written by Sue D'Auria and published by BRILL. This book was released on 2008 with total page 294 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Richard A. Fazzini has inspired and mentored many scholars of Egyptology through his tireless efforts as curator and then chairman of the Brooklyn Museum's Deptartment of Egyptian, Classical and Ancient Middle Eastern Art (ECAMEA); field archaeologist of the Pricinct of Mut at Karnak; scholar; and teacher, The 35 contributions to this volume in his honor represent the variety of Professor Fazzini's own research interests namely in ancient Egyptian art, religious iconography, and archaeology, particularly of the New Kingdom, Third Intermediate Period, and Late Period. Reflections on Professor Fazzini's scholarship and teaching are accompanied by an extensive bibliography of his works.

The Military History in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties

Download The Military History in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Military History in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties by : Li Shi

Download or read book The Military History in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “The Military History in Sui, Tang and Five Dynasties” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.

Ancient Egypt and the East

Download Ancient Egypt and the East PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 162 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (311 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Ancient Egypt and the East by :

Download or read book Ancient Egypt and the East written by and published by . This book was released on 1921 with total page 162 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Ancient Egypt and the East

Download Ancient Egypt and the East PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 600 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Ancient Egypt and the East by : Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie

Download or read book Ancient Egypt and the East written by Sir William Matthew Flinders Petrie and published by . This book was released on 1920 with total page 600 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

The Everyday Life Bible

Download The Everyday Life Bible PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : FaithWords
ISBN 13 : 1478922974
Total Pages : 2208 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (789 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Everyday Life Bible by : Joyce Meyer

Download or read book The Everyday Life Bible written by Joyce Meyer and published by FaithWords. This book was released on 2018-04-10 with total page 2208 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: With practical commentaries, articles, and features, this new amplified version of #1 New York Times bestselling author Joyce Meyer's popular study Bible will help you live out your faith. In the decade since its original publication, The Everyday Life Bible has sold 1.1 million copies, taking its place as an invaluable resource on the Word of God. Simultaneously, Joyce Meyer's renown as one of the world's leading practical Bible teachers has grown, as she continues to study and teach daily. This new edition updates Joyce's notes and commentary to reflect the changes made in the revision of the Amplified Bible which refreshes the English and refines the amplification for relevance and clarity. The result is The Everyday Life Bible that is now easier to read and better than ever to study, understand, and apply to your everyday life.

Destiny Dynasty Legacy

Download Destiny Dynasty Legacy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Xlibris Corporation
ISBN 13 : 1493105574
Total Pages : 95 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (931 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Destiny Dynasty Legacy by : Dr. James E. Randolph

Download or read book Destiny Dynasty Legacy written by Dr. James E. Randolph and published by Xlibris Corporation. This book was released on 2013-12-11 with total page 95 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This Working Wealth Book (Working Wealth) is written out of my passion, concern and desire to see Gods people become more fully developed, purpose-driven and more effective in the Kingdom of God. Our time is short and much must be done by the Body of Christ to make an impact and a difference on the earth. I firmly believe that as believers and individuals we need more personal development and a real understanding of true wealth. Wealth is not really about money, but rather the richness of our internal system which reveals who we are, our purpose in life, our gifts, talents, abilities and our God given assignment on earth. A truly wealthy person is a valuable and powerful vessel that is internally opulent and abundantly blessed. When we are wealthy we are overflowing with fulfillment, godly purpose, passion, delight and generosity. Jesus is our ultimate example and He said in John 10:10bAMP, I came that they may have and enjoy life, and have it in abundance,(to the full, till it over flows). This is the true definition of wealth and we are assigned and entrusted to be examples of it. In Working Wealth, you will learn all about wealth. You will be given the resources to assist you in your personal development building so you can be a witness of Gods wealth. Personal development is the key to becoming a truly wealthy individual with all fruitfulness, prosperity, success and effectiveness of a wealthy person. Thank you for investing in yourself by purchasing the Working Wealth. I can promise you that this book will be a very powerful tool and resource towards building a fulfilling, energizing, exciting and edifying lifestyle. I have found that every person wants to be better, more improved and more effective. Personal development is the key to reaching those dreams, goals and desires that speak on the inside of you. Why should you live in weakness and lack, when you are full of treasure? Jesus said, in Matthew 25:14-15, For it is like a man who was about to take a long journey and he called his servants together and entrusted them with his property. To one he gave five talents, to another two, to another one, to each according to his own personal ability. Then he departed and left the country. Personal development is taking seriously what has been entrusted to you and investing in it to produce a wealthy, more profitable you.

The Imperial Order

Download The Imperial Order PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : University of California Press
ISBN 13 : 0520368681
Total Pages : 562 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (23 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Imperial Order by : Robert G. Wesson

Download or read book The Imperial Order written by Robert G. Wesson and published by University of California Press. This book was released on 2021-01-08 with total page 562 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This title is part of UC Press's Voices Revived program, which commemorates University of California Press’s mission to seek out and cultivate the brightest minds and give them voice, reach, and impact. Drawing on a backlist dating to 1893, Voices Revived makes high-quality, peer-reviewed scholarship accessible once again using print-on-demand technology. This title was originally published in 1967.

Growth of Feudal Society in the Qin and Han Dynasties

Download Growth of Feudal Society in the Qin and Han Dynasties PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Growth of Feudal Society in the Qin and Han Dynasties by : Da Xue

Download or read book Growth of Feudal Society in the Qin and Han Dynasties written by Da Xue and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “Growth of Feudal Society in the Qin and Han Dynasties” among a series of books of “Chinese Dynastic History”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization. The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times. In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949. Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.