Pore- to Field-scale Modelling of Three-phase Flow Processes in Heterogeneous Reservoirs with Arbitrary Wettability

Download Pore- to Field-scale Modelling of Three-phase Flow Processes in Heterogeneous Reservoirs with Arbitrary Wettability PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (883 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Pore- to Field-scale Modelling of Three-phase Flow Processes in Heterogeneous Reservoirs with Arbitrary Wettability by : Adnan Al-Dhahli

Download or read book Pore- to Field-scale Modelling of Three-phase Flow Processes in Heterogeneous Reservoirs with Arbitrary Wettability written by Adnan Al-Dhahli and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Multiphase Flow in Permeable Media

Download Multiphase Flow in Permeable Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1316861880
Total Pages : 503 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (168 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Multiphase Flow in Permeable Media by : Martin J. Blunt

Download or read book Multiphase Flow in Permeable Media written by Martin J. Blunt and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2017-02-16 with total page 503 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Hydrocarbon production, gas recovery from shale, CO2 storage and water management have a common scientific underpinning: multiphase flow in porous media. This book provides a fundamental description of multiphase flow through porous rock, with emphasis on the understanding of displacement processes at the pore, or micron, scale. Fundamental equations and principal concepts using energy, momentum, and mass balance are developed, and the latest developments in high-resolution three-dimensional imaging and associated modelling are explored. The treatment is pedagogical, developing sound physical principles to predict flow and recovery through complex rock structures, while providing a review of the recent literature. This systematic approach makes it an excellent reference for those who are new to the field. Inspired by recent research, and based on courses taught to thousands of students and professionals from around the world, it provides the scientific background necessary for a quantitative assessment of multiphase subsurface flow processes, and is ideal for hydrology and environmental engineering students, as well as professionals in the hydrocarbon, water and carbon storage industries.

Fundamental Controls on Fluid Flow in Carbonates

Download Fundamental Controls on Fluid Flow in Carbonates PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Geological Society of London
ISBN 13 : 1862396590
Total Pages : 473 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (623 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Fundamental Controls on Fluid Flow in Carbonates by : S.M. Agar

Download or read book Fundamental Controls on Fluid Flow in Carbonates written by S.M. Agar and published by Geological Society of London. This book was released on 2015-02-02 with total page 473 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This volume highlights key challenges for fluid-flow prediction in carbonate reservoirs, the approaches currently employed to address these challenges and developments in fundamental science and technology. The papers span methods and case studies that highlight workflows and emerging technologies in the fields of geology, geophysics, petrophysics, reservoir modelling and computer science. Topics include: detailed pore-scale studies that explore fundamental processes and applications of imaging and flow modelling at the pore scale; case studies of diagenetic processes with complementary perspectives from reactive transport modelling; novel methods for rock typing; petrophysical studies that investigate the impact of diagenesis and fault-rock properties on acoustic signatures; mechanical modelling and seismic imaging of faults in carbonate rocks; modelling geological influences on seismic anisotropy; novel approaches to geological modelling; methods to represent key geological details in reservoir simulations and advances in computer visualization, analytics and interactions for geoscience and engineering.

Mathematical Modeling for Flow and Transport Through Porous Media

Download Mathematical Modeling for Flow and Transport Through Porous Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9401721998
Total Pages : 293 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (17 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Mathematical Modeling for Flow and Transport Through Porous Media by : Gedeon Dagan

Download or read book Mathematical Modeling for Flow and Transport Through Porous Media written by Gedeon Dagan and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-06-29 with total page 293 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The main aim of this paper is to present some new and general results, ap plicable to the the equations of two phase flow, as formulated in geothermal reservoir engineering. Two phase regions are important in many geothermal reservoirs, especially at depths of order several hundred metres, where ris ing, essentially isothermal single phase liquid first begins to boil. The fluid then continues to rise, with its temperature and pressure closely following the saturation (boiling) curve appropriate to the fluid composition. Perhaps the two most interesting theoretical aspects of the (idealised) two phase flow equations in geothermal reservoir engineering are that firstly, only one component (water) is involved; and secondly, that the densities of the two phases are so different. This has led to the approximation of ignoring capillary pressure. The main aim of this paper is to analyse some of the consequences of this assumption, especially in relation to saturation changes within a uniform porous medium. A general analytic treatment of three dimensional flow is considered. Pre viously, three dimensional modelling in geothermal reservoirs have relied on numerical simulators. In contrast, most of the past analytic work has been restricted to one dimensional examples.

Pore-scale modelling of three-phase flow

Download Pore-scale modelling of three-phase flow PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (93 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Pore-scale modelling of three-phase flow by : Mohammad Piri

Download or read book Pore-scale modelling of three-phase flow written by Mohammad Piri and published by . This book was released on 2004 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Porous Media

Download Porous Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0323139337
Total Pages : 598 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (231 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Porous Media by : F. A.L. Dullien

Download or read book Porous Media written by F. A.L. Dullien and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2012-12-02 with total page 598 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book examines the relationship between transport properties and pore structure of porous material. Models of pore structure are presented with a discussion of how such models can be used to predict the transport properties of porous media. Portions of the book are devoted to interpretations of experimental results in this area and directions for future research. Practical applications are given where applicable, and are expected to be useful for a large number of different fields, including reservoir engineering, geology, hydrogeology, soil science, chemical process engineering, biomedical engineering, fuel technology, hydrometallurgy, nuclear reactor technology, and materials science. - Presents mechanisms of immiscible and miscible displacement (hydrodynamic dispersion) process in porous media - Examines relationships between pore structure and fluid transport - Considers approaches to enhanced oil recovery - Explores network modeling and perolation theory

Upscaling Multiphase Flow in Porous Media

Download Upscaling Multiphase Flow in Porous Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1402036043
Total Pages : 259 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (2 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Upscaling Multiphase Flow in Porous Media by : D.B. Das

Download or read book Upscaling Multiphase Flow in Porous Media written by D.B. Das and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2005-12-05 with total page 259 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book provides concise, up-to-date and easy-to-follow information on certain aspects of an ever important research area: multiphase flow in porous media. This flow type is of great significance in many petroleum and environmental engineering problems, such as in secondary and tertiary oil recovery, subsurface remediation and CO2 sequestration. This book contains a collection of selected papers (all refereed) from a number of well-known experts on multiphase flow. The papers describe both recent and state-of-the-art modeling and experimental techniques for study of multiphase flow phenomena in porous media. Specifically, the book analyses three advanced topics: upscaling, pore-scale modeling, and dynamic effects in multiphase flow in porous media. This will be an invaluable reference for the development of new theories and computer-based modeling techniques for solving realistic multiphase flow problems. Part of this book has already been published in a journal. Audience This book will be of interest to academics, researchers and consultants working in the area of flow in porous media.

Modelling Water Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media

Download Modelling Water Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 364223559X
Total Pages : 254 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (422 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Modelling Water Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media by : Adam Szymkiewicz

Download or read book Modelling Water Flow in Unsaturated Porous Media written by Adam Szymkiewicz and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-10-11 with total page 254 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book focuses on two issues related to mathematical and numerical modelling of flow in unsaturated porous media. In the first part numerical solution of the governing equations is discussed, with particular emphasis on the spatial discretization of highly nonlinear permeability coefficient. The second part deals with large scale flow in heterogeneous porous media of binary structure. Upscaled models are developed and it is shown that the presence of material heterogeneities may give rise to additional non-equilibrium terms in the governing equations or to hysteresis in the averaged constitutive relationships.

Multiscale Direct Numerical Modeling of Pore-scale and Darcy-scale Multiphase Flow in Porous Media

Download Multiscale Direct Numerical Modeling of Pore-scale and Darcy-scale Multiphase Flow in Porous Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (124 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Multiscale Direct Numerical Modeling of Pore-scale and Darcy-scale Multiphase Flow in Porous Media by : Soheil Esmaeilzadeh

Download or read book Multiscale Direct Numerical Modeling of Pore-scale and Darcy-scale Multiphase Flow in Porous Media written by Soheil Esmaeilzadeh and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Improving our understanding about the evolution of multiphase flow in porous media is crucial for many applications such as extraction of hydrocarbons and geothermal energy from subsurface reservoirs, ground-water remediation, CO2 capture and storage, and transport of contaminants in aquifers and soil. Although such applications have implications at very large length scales, e.g., in the orders of kilometers, they strongly depend on the complex physics and dynamics that mainly occur at the pore-scale. Studying multiphase flow at the pore-scale using direct numerical modeling requires developing accurate numerical frameworks that not only honor conservation laws of mass, momentum, and energy, but also can precisely represent and track fluid-fluid interfaces in space and time in the presence of complex embedded solid geometries. In this dissertation, we consider incompressible and immiscible two-phase flows under isothermal conditions and in electrokinetic equilibrium. We solve for the conservation of mass and momentum, and using an immersed boundary approach account for the presence of embedded solid boundaries. We use a two-phase flow modeling approach based on the level-set method to capture the interfacial dynamics of the flow. Using our numerical framework, we first validate recent experimental works on phase separation in the form of pinch-off at the pore-scale, then we extend such experimental observations to a wide range of wettability conditions. For the phase separation in the form of pinch-off, we provide a quantitative study of the emerging length and time scales and their dependence on the wettability conditions, capillary effects, and viscous forces. Afterward, we present a subgrid thin-film model in order to resolve the interfacial dynamics of thin-films on curved solid surfaces in porous media. We couple a Navier-Stokes solver with a topology-preserving level-set method and a sub-grid thin-film model in order to simulate immiscible two-phase pore-scale flows in the presence of thin-films on curved solid surfaces. We validate our proposed subgrid thin-film model for the cases of static and dynamic fluid-fluid interfaces in capillary tubes (both drainage and imbibition) in the presence of curved solid surfaces. We compare the thin-film profile obtained by the subgrid thin-film model versus the profile numerically resolved by refined computational grid cells spanning the subgrid resolution of the thin-film and achieve a great agreement. Subsequently, we consider granular porous media with homogeneous and heterogeneous wettability conditions. We investigate the influence of capillary and viscous forces as well as wettability conditions on the interfacial dynamics, displacement efficiency, phase trapping phenomenon, and interfacial instabilities. For the heterogeneous wettability conditions, we consider granular media with mixed-wet conditions as well as fractional (patterned) wettability conditions. Finally, at the end of this dissertation, we present a physics-constrained super-resolution framework that can super-resolve numerical simulation data in both space and time. We test the robustness of our proposed super-resolution framework for super-resolving simulation data obtained for a turbulent flow case of Rayleigh-Bénard convection problem as well as a case of two-phase flow interfacial dynamics in porous media for a subsurface reservoir.

Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface

Download Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 392 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface by : Rainer Helmig

Download or read book Multiphase Flow and Transport Processes in the Subsurface written by Rainer Helmig and published by Springer. This book was released on 1997-09-04 with total page 392 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The general formulation of a model is an important precondition for modeling multiphase flow and transport processes in subsurface hydrosystems. This book presents a consistent and easily accessible formulation of the fundamental phenomena and concepts, a uniform description of mathematical and numerical modeling, and latest developments in the field of simulation of multiphase processes, especially in porous and heterogeneous media. The author discusses in detail not only general aspects of the selection of relevant processes and corresponding parameters but also the mathematical and numerical modeling concepts.

An Introduction to Reservoir Simulation Using MATLAB/GNU Octave

Download An Introduction to Reservoir Simulation Using MATLAB/GNU Octave PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108492436
Total Pages : 677 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (84 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis An Introduction to Reservoir Simulation Using MATLAB/GNU Octave by : Knut-Andreas Lie

Download or read book An Introduction to Reservoir Simulation Using MATLAB/GNU Octave written by Knut-Andreas Lie and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2019-08-08 with total page 677 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Presents numerical methods for reservoir simulation, with efficient implementation and examples using widely-used online open-source code, for researchers, professionals and advanced students. This title is also available as Open Access on Cambridge Core.

Multiphase Flow in Porous Media: the Impact of Capillarity and Wettability from Field-scale to Pore-scale

Download Multiphase Flow in Porous Media: the Impact of Capillarity and Wettability from Field-scale to Pore-scale PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 104 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (986 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Multiphase Flow in Porous Media: the Impact of Capillarity and Wettability from Field-scale to Pore-scale by : Benzhong Zhao

Download or read book Multiphase Flow in Porous Media: the Impact of Capillarity and Wettability from Field-scale to Pore-scale written by Benzhong Zhao and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 104 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Multiphase flow in the context of this Thesis refers to the simultaneous flow of immiscible fluids. It differs significantly from single-phase flow due to the existence of fluid-fluid interfaces, which are subject to capillary forces. Multiphase flow in porous media is important in many natural and industrial processes, including geologic carbon dioxide (CO2) sequestration, enhanced oil recovery, and water infiltration into soil. Despite its importance, much of our current description of multiphase flow in porous media is based on semi-empirical extensions of single-phase flow theories, which miss key physical mechanisms that are unique to multiphase systems. One challenging aspect of solving this problem is visualization-flow typically occurs inside opaque media and hence eludes direct observation. Another challenging aspect of multiphase flow in porous media is that it encompasses a wide spectrum of length scales-while capillary force is active at the pore-scale (on the order of microns), it can have a significant impact at the field-scale (on the order of kilometers). In this Thesis, we employ novel laboratory experiments and mathematical modeling to study multiphase flow in porous media across scales. The field-scale portion of this Thesis focuses on gravity-driven flows in the subsurface, with an emphasis on application to geological CO2 storage. We find that capillary forces can slow and stop the migration of a CO2 plume. The meso-scale portion of this Thesis demonstrates the powerful control of wettability on multiphase flow in porous media, which is manifested in the markedly different invasion protocols that emerge when one fluid displaces another in a patterned microfluidic cell. The pore-scale portion of this Thesis focuses on the impact of wettability on fluid-fluid displacement inside a capillary tube. We show that the contact line movement is strongly affected by wettability, even in regimes where viscous forces dominate capillary forces.

Petroleum Abstracts

Download Petroleum Abstracts PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 536 pages
Book Rating : 4.F/5 ( download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Petroleum Abstracts by :

Download or read book Petroleum Abstracts written by and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 536 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

A Systems Description of Flow Through Porous Media

Download A Systems Description of Flow Through Porous Media PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3319002600
Total Pages : 130 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (19 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis A Systems Description of Flow Through Porous Media by : Jan Dirk Jansen

Download or read book A Systems Description of Flow Through Porous Media written by Jan Dirk Jansen and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-05-23 with total page 130 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This text forms part of material taught during a course in advanced reservoir simulation at Delft University of Technology over the past 10 years. The contents have also been presented at various short courses for industrial and academic researchers interested in background knowledge needed to perform research in the area of closed-loop reservoir management, also known as smart fields, related to e.g. model-based production optimization, data assimilation (or history matching), model reduction, or upscaling techniques. Each of these topics has connections to system-theoretical concepts. The introductory part of the course, i.e. the systems description of flow through porous media, forms the topic of this brief monograph. The main objective is to present the classic reservoir simulation equations in a notation that facilitates the use of concepts from the systems-and-control literature. Although the theory is limited to the relatively simple situation of horizontal two-phase (oil-water) flow, it covers several typical aspects of porous-media flow. The first chapter gives a brief review of the basic equations to represent single-phase and two-phase flow. It discusses the governing partial-differential equations, their physical interpretation, spatial discretization with finite differences, and the treatment of wells. It contains well-known theory and is primarily meant to form a basis for the next chapter where the equations will be reformulated in terms of systems-and-control notation. The second chapter develops representations in state-space notation of the porous-media flow equations. The systematic use of matrix partitioning to describe the different types of inputs leads to a description in terms of nonlinear ordinary-differential and algebraic equations with (state-dependent) system, input, output and direct-throughput matrices. Other topics include generalized state-space representations, linearization, elimination of prescribed pressures, the tracing of stream lines, lift tables, computational aspects, and the derivation of an energy balance for porous-media flow. The third chapter first treats the analytical solution of linear systems of ordinary differential equations for single-phase flow. Next it moves on to the numerical solution of the two-phase flow equations, covering various aspects like implicit, explicit or mixed (IMPES) time discretizations and associated stability issues, Newton-Raphson iteration, streamline simulation, automatic time-stepping, and other computational aspects. The chapter concludes with simple numerical examples to illustrate these and other aspects such as mobility effects, well-constraint switching, time-stepping statistics, and system-energy accounting. The contents of this brief should be of value to students and researchers interested in the application of systems-and-control concepts to oil and gas reservoir simulation and other applications of subsurface flow simulation such as CO2 storage, geothermal energy, or groundwater remediation.

Reservoir Model Design

Download Reservoir Model Design PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 9400754973
Total Pages : 260 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (7 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reservoir Model Design by : Philip Ringrose

Download or read book Reservoir Model Design written by Philip Ringrose and published by Springer. This book was released on 2014-10-03 with total page 260 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book gives practical advice and ready to use tips on the design and construction of subsurface reservoir models. The design elements cover rock architecture, petrophysical property modelling, multi-scale data integration, upscaling and uncertainty analysis. Philip Ringrose and Mark Bentley share their experience, gained from over a hundred reservoir modelling studies in 25 countries covering clastic, carbonate and fractured reservoir types. The intimate relationship between geology and fluid flow is explored throughout, showing how the impact of fluid type, production mechanism and the subtleties of single- and multi-phase flow combine to influence reservoir model design. Audience: The main audience for this book is the community of applied geoscientists and engineers involved in the development and use of subsurface fluid resources. The book is suitable for a range of Master’s level courses in reservoir characterisation, modelling and engineering. · Provides practical advice and guidelines for users of 3D reservoir modelling packages · Gives advice on reservoir model design for the growing world-wide activity in subsurface reservoir modelling · Covers rock modelling, property modelling, upscaling and uncertainty handling · Encompasses clastic, carbonate and fractured reservoirs

Flow and Transport in Porous Media and Fractured Rock

Download Flow and Transport in Porous Media and Fractured Rock PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 3527636706
Total Pages : 635 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (276 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Flow and Transport in Porous Media and Fractured Rock by : Muhammad Sahimi

Download or read book Flow and Transport in Porous Media and Fractured Rock written by Muhammad Sahimi and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2011-05-09 with total page 635 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this standard reference of the field, theoretical and experimental approaches to flow, hydrodynamic dispersion, and miscible displacements in porous media and fractured rock are considered. Two different approaches are discussed and contrasted with each other. The first approach is based on the classical equations of flow and transport, called 'continuum models'. The second approach is based on modern methods of statistical physics of disordered media; that is, on 'discrete models', which have become increasingly popular over the past 15 years. The book is unique in its scope, since (1) there is currently no book that compares the two approaches, and covers all important aspects of porous media problems; and (2) includes discussion of fractured rocks, which so far has been treated as a separate subject. Portions of the book would be suitable for an advanced undergraduate course. The book will be ideal for graduate courses on the subject, and can be used by chemical, petroleum, civil, environmental engineers, and geologists, as well as physicists, applied physicist and allied scientists that deal with various porous media problems.

Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow

Download Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309049962
Total Pages : 568 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (9 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow by : National Research Council

Download or read book Rock Fractures and Fluid Flow written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 1996-08-27 with total page 568 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Scientific understanding of fluid flow in rock fracturesâ€"a process underlying contemporary earth science problems from the search for petroleum to the controversy over nuclear waste storageâ€"has grown significantly in the past 20 years. This volume presents a comprehensive report on the state of the field, with an interdisciplinary viewpoint, case studies of fracture sites, illustrations, conclusions, and research recommendations. The book addresses these questions: How can fractures that are significant hydraulic conductors be identified, located, and characterized? How do flow and transport occur in fracture systems? How can changes in fracture systems be predicted and controlled? Among other topics, the committee provides a geomechanical understanding of fracture formation, reviews methods for detecting subsurface fractures, and looks at the use of hydraulic and tracer tests to investigate fluid flow. The volume examines the state of conceptual and mathematical modeling, and it provides a useful framework for understanding the complexity of fracture changes that occur during fluid pumping and other engineering practices. With a practical and multidisciplinary outlook, this volume will be welcomed by geologists, petroleum geologists, geoengineers, geophysicists, hydrologists, researchers, educators and students in these fields, and public officials involved in geological projects.