Plant Responses to Hypoxia

Download Plant Responses to Hypoxia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : MDPI
ISBN 13 : 3036501487
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (365 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Plant Responses to Hypoxia by : Elena Loreti

Download or read book Plant Responses to Hypoxia written by Elena Loreti and published by MDPI. This book was released on 2021-03-02 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Molecular oxygen deficiency leads to altered cellular metabolism and can dramatically reduce crop productivity. Nearly all crops are negatively affected by a lack of oxygen (hypoxia) due to adverse environmental conditions such as excessive rain and soil waterlogging. Extensive efforts to fully understand how plants sense oxygen deficiency and their ability to respond using different strategies are crucial to increase hypoxia tolerance. Progress in our understanding has been significant in recent years. This topic certainly deserves more attention from the academic community; therefore, we have compiled a series of articles reflecting the advancements made thus far.

Low-Oxygen Stress in Plants

Download Low-Oxygen Stress in Plants PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3709112540
Total Pages : 426 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (91 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Low-Oxygen Stress in Plants by : Joost T. van Dongen

Download or read book Low-Oxygen Stress in Plants written by Joost T. van Dongen and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2014-01-17 with total page 426 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: During the last ten years, knowledge about the multitude of adaptive responses of plants to low oxygen stress has grown immensely. The oxygen sensor mechanism has been discovered, the knowledge about the interaction network of gene expression is expanding and metabolic adaptations have been described in detail. Furthermore, morphological changes were investigated and the regulative mechanisms triggered by plant hormones or reactive oxygen species have been revealed. This book provides a broad overview of all these aspects of low oxygen stress in plants. It integrates knowledge from different disciplines such as molecular biology, biochemistry, ecophysiology and agricultural / horticultural sciences to comprehensively describe how plants cope with low oxygen stress and discuss its ecological and agronomical consequences. This book is written for plant scientists, biochemists and scientists in agriculture and ecophysiology.

Plant Responses to Hypoxia

Download Plant Responses to Hypoxia PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9783036501499
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (14 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Plant Responses to Hypoxia by : Elena Loreti

Download or read book Plant Responses to Hypoxia written by Elena Loreti and published by . This book was released on 2021 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Molecular oxygen deficiency leads to altered cellular metabolism and can dramatically reduce crop productivity. Nearly all crops are negatively affected by a lack of oxygen (hypoxia) due to adverse environmental conditions such as excessive rain and soil waterlogging. Extensive efforts to fully understand how plants sense oxygen deficiency and their ability to respond using different strategies are crucial to increase hypoxia tolerance. Progress in our understanding has been significant in recent years. This topic certainly deserves more attention from the academic community; therefore, we have compiled a series of articles reflecting the advancements made thus far.

Oxygen Sensing

Download Oxygen Sensing PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Elsevier
ISBN 13 : 0080497195
Total Pages : 867 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (84 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Oxygen Sensing by :

Download or read book Oxygen Sensing written by and published by Elsevier. This book was released on 2004-05-10 with total page 867 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The ability of cells to sense and respond to changes in oxygenation underlies a multitude of developmental, physiological, and pathological processes. This volume provides a comprehensive compendium of experimental approaches to the study of oxygen sensing in 48 chapters that are written by leaders in their fields.

Plant responses to flooding

Download Plant responses to flooding PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Frontiers E-books
ISBN 13 : 2889193047
Total Pages : 143 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (891 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Plant responses to flooding by : Pierdomenico Perata

Download or read book Plant responses to flooding written by Pierdomenico Perata and published by Frontiers E-books. This book was released on 2015-01-05 with total page 143 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Auxin Signaling 2

Download Auxin Signaling 2 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781621824008
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (24 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Auxin Signaling 2 by : ESTELLE ET AL

Download or read book Auxin Signaling 2 written by ESTELLE ET AL and published by . This book was released on 2021-03-31 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur Species in Plants

Download Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur Species in Plants PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119468663
Total Pages : 1024 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (194 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur Species in Plants by : Mirza Hasanuzzaman

Download or read book Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur Species in Plants written by Mirza Hasanuzzaman and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2019-07-02 with total page 1024 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Presents a multidisciplinary analysis of the integration among reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS), and reactive sulfur species (RSS). Since plants are the main source of our food, the improvement of their productivity is the most important task for plant biologists. In this book, leading experts accumulate the recent development in the research on oxidative stress and approaches to enhance antioxidant defense system in crop plants. They discuss both the plant responses to oxidative stress and mechanisms of abiotic stress tolerance, and cover all of the recent approaches towards understanding oxidative stress in plants, providing comprehensive information about the topics. It also discusses how reactive nitrogen species and reactive sulfur species regulate plant physiology and plant tolerance to environmental stresses. Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur Species in Plants: Production, Metabolism, Signaling and Defense Mechanisms covers everything readers need to know in four comprehensive sections. It starts by looking at reactive oxygen species metabolism and antioxidant defense. Next, it covers reactive nitrogen species metabolism and signaling before going on to reactive sulfur species metabolism and signaling. The book finishes with a section that looks at crosstalk among reactive oxygen, nitrogen, and sulfur species based on current research done by experts. Presents the newest method for understanding oxidative stress in plants. Covers both the plant responses to oxidative stress and mechanisms of abiotic stress tolerance Details the integration among reactive oxygen species (ROS), reactive nitrogen species (RNS) and reactive sulfur species (RSS) Written by 140 experts in the field of plant stress physiology, crop improvement, and genetic engineering Providing a comprehensive collection of up-to-date knowledge spanning from biosynthesis and metabolism to signaling pathways implicated in the involvement of RONSS to plant defense mechanisms, Reactive Oxygen, Nitrogen and Sulfur Species in Plants: Production, Metabolism, Signaling and Defense Mechanisms is an excellent book for plant breeders, molecular biologists, and plant physiologists, as well as a guide for students in the field of Plant Science.

Stress Signaling in Plants: Genomics and Proteomics Perspective, Volume 1

Download Stress Signaling in Plants: Genomics and Proteomics Perspective, Volume 1 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1461463726
Total Pages : 241 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (614 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Stress Signaling in Plants: Genomics and Proteomics Perspective, Volume 1 by : Maryam Sarwat

Download or read book Stress Signaling in Plants: Genomics and Proteomics Perspective, Volume 1 written by Maryam Sarwat and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-06-21 with total page 241 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Plant diseases, extreme weather caused by climate change, drought and an increase in metals in soil are amongst the major limiting factors of crop production worldwide. They devastate not only food supply but also the economy of a nation. Keeping in view of the global food scarcity, there is, an urgent need to develop crop plants with increased stress tolerance so as to meet the global food demands and to preserve the quality of our planet. In order to do this, it is necessary to understand how plants react and adapt to stress from the genomic and proteomic perspective. Plants adapt to stress conditions by activation of cascades of molecular mechanisms, which result in alterations in gene expression and synthesis of protective proteins/compounds. From the perception of the stimulus to transduction of the signal, followed by an appropriate response, the plants employ a complex network of primary and secondary messenger molecules. Cell signaling is the component of a complex system of communication that directs basic cellular activities and synchronizes cell actions. Cells exercise a large number of noticeably distinct signaling pathways to regulate their activity. In order to contend with different environmental adversities plants have developed a series of mechanisms at the physiological, cellular and molecular level. This two volume set takes an in-depth look at the Stress Signaling in Plants from a uniquely genomic and proteomics perspective. Stress Signaling in Plants offers a comprehensive treatise on the Chapter, covering all of the signaling pathways and mechanisms that have been researched so far. Each chapter provides in-depth explanation of what we currently know of a particular aspect of stress signaling and where we are headed. All authors have currently agreed and abstracts have been complied for the first volume, due out midway through 2012. We aim to have the second volume out at the beginning of 2013.​

Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants

Download Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0128178930
Total Pages : 364 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (281 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants by : Mohammad Anwar Hossain

Download or read book Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants written by Mohammad Anwar Hossain and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2020-01-22 with total page 364 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants provides the latest, in-depth understanding of the molecular mechanisms associated with the development of stress and cross-stress tolerance in plants. Plants growing under field conditions are constantly exposed, either sequentially or simultaneously, to many abiotic or biotic stress factors. As a result, many plants have developed unique strategies to respond to ever-changing environmental conditions, enabling them to monitor their surroundings and adjust their metabolic systems to maintain homeostasis. Recently, priming mediated stress and cross-stress tolerance (i.e., greater tolerance to a second, stronger stress after exposure to a different, milder primary stress) have attracted considerable interest within the scientific community as potential means of stress management and for producing stress-resistant crops to aid global food security. Priming-Mediated Stress and Cross-Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants comprehensively reviews the physiological, biochemical, and molecular basis of cross-tolerance phenomena, allowing researchers to develop strategies to enhance crop productivity under stressful conditions and to utilize natural resources more efficiently. The book is a valuable asset for plant and agricultural scientists in corporate or government environments, as well as educators and advanced students looking to promote future research into plant stress tolerance. Provides comprehensive information for developing multiple stress-tolerant crop varieties Includes in-depth physiological, biochemical, and molecular information associated with cross-tolerance Includes contribution from world-leading cross-tolerance research group Presents color images and diagrams for effective communication of key concepts

Crop Stress and its Management: Perspectives and Strategies

Download Crop Stress and its Management: Perspectives and Strategies PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9789400722200
Total Pages : 612 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (222 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Crop Stress and its Management: Perspectives and Strategies by : B. Venkateswarlu

Download or read book Crop Stress and its Management: Perspectives and Strategies written by B. Venkateswarlu and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2011-11-22 with total page 612 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Crops experience an assortment of environmental stresses which include abiotic viz., drought, water logging, salinity, extremes of temperature, high variability in radiation, subtle but perceptible changes in atmospheric gases and biotic viz., insects, birds, other pests, weeds, pathogens (viruses and other microbes). The ability to tolerate or adapt and overwinter by effectively countering these stresses is a very multifaceted phenomenon. In addition, the inability to do so which renders the crops susceptible is again the result of various exogenous and endogenous interactions in the ecosystem. Both biotic and abiotic stresses occur at various stages of plant development and frequently more than one stress concurrently affects the crop. Stresses result in both universal and definite effects on plant growth and development. One of the imposing tasks for the crop researchers globally is to distinguish and to diminish effects of these stress factors on the performance of crop plants, especially with respect to yield and quality of harvested products. This is of special significance in view of the impending climate change, with complex consequences for economically profitable and ecologically and environmentally sound global agriculture. The challenge at the hands of the crop scientist in such a scenario is to promote a competitive and multifunctional agriculture, leading to the production of highly nourishing, healthy and secure food and animal feed as well as raw materials for a wide variety of industrial applications. In order to successfully meet this challenge researchers have to understand the various aspects of these stresses in view of the current development from molecules to ecosystems. The book will focus on broad research areas in relation to these stresses which are in the forefront in contemporary crop stress research.

Protective Chemical Agents in the Amelioration of Plant Abiotic Stress

Download Protective Chemical Agents in the Amelioration of Plant Abiotic Stress PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 111955165X
Total Pages : 704 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (195 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Protective Chemical Agents in the Amelioration of Plant Abiotic Stress by : Aryadeep Roychoudhury

Download or read book Protective Chemical Agents in the Amelioration of Plant Abiotic Stress written by Aryadeep Roychoudhury and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2020-05-20 with total page 704 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A guide to the chemical agents that protect plants from various environmental stressors Protective Chemical Agents in the Amelioration of Plant Abiotic Stress offers a guide to the diverse chemical agents that have the potential to mitigate different forms of abiotic stresses in plants. Edited by two experts on the topic, the book explores the role of novel chemicals and shows how using such unique chemical agents can tackle the oxidative damages caused by environmental stresses. Exogenous application of different chemical agents or chemical priming of seeds presents opportunities for crop stress management. The use of chemical compounds as protective agents has been found to improve plant tolerance significantly in various crop and non-crop species against a range of different individually applied abiotic stresses by regulating the endogenous levels of the protective agents within plants. This important book: Explores the efficacy of various chemical agents to eliminate abiotic stress Offers a groundbreaking look at the topic and reviews the most recent advances in the field Includes information from noted authorities on the subject Promises to benefit agriculture under stress conditions at the ground level Written for researchers, academicians, and scientists, Protective Chemical Agents in the Amelioration of Plant Abiotic Stress details the wide range of protective chemical agents, their applications, and their intricate biochemical and molecular mechanism of action within the plant systems during adverse situations.

Flooding and Plant Growth

Download Flooding and Plant Growth PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0323139116
Total Pages : 356 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (231 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Flooding and Plant Growth by : Gerard Meurant

Download or read book Flooding and Plant Growth written by Gerard Meurant and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2012-12-02 with total page 356 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Flooding and Plant Growth covers the state of knowledge and opinion on the effects of flooding of soil with fresh or salt water on the metabolism and growth of herbaceous and woody plants. The book discusses the extent, causes, and impacts of flooding; the effects of flooding on soils and on the growth and metabolism of herbaceous plants; and the responses of woody plants to flooding. The text also describes the effect of flooding on water, carbohydrate, and mineral relations, as well as the effects of flooding on hormone relations and on plant disease. The adaptations to flooding with fresh water and the adaptations of plants to flooding with salt water are also encompassed. Agronomists, biochemists, plant ecologists, engineers, foresters, horticulturists, plant anatomists, meteorologists, geneticists, plant breeders, plant physiologists, and landscape architects will find the book invaluable.

Plant Aquaporins

Download Plant Aquaporins PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319493957
Total Pages : 353 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (194 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Plant Aquaporins by : François Chaumont

Download or read book Plant Aquaporins written by François Chaumont and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-02-07 with total page 353 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Aquaporins are channel proteins that facilitate the diffusion of water and small uncharged solutes across cellular membranes. Plant aquaporins form a large family of highly divergent proteins that are involved in many different physiological processes. This book will summarize the recent advances regarding plant aquaporins, their phylogeny, structure, substrate specificity, mechanisms of regulation and roles in various important physiological processes related to the control of water flow and small solute distribution at the cell, tissue and plant level in an ever-changing environment.

Current Trends in the Embryology of Angiosperms

Download Current Trends in the Embryology of Angiosperms PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9401712034
Total Pages : 534 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (17 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Current Trends in the Embryology of Angiosperms by : Sant Saran Bhojwani

Download or read book Current Trends in the Embryology of Angiosperms written by Sant Saran Bhojwani and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-04-17 with total page 534 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The revolutionary progress made in this fascinating field of sexual reproduction inspired this generously illustrated volume. It includes 21 chapters written by experts, covering all aspects of the embryology of angiosperms, ranging from development, isolation, and structure of gametes to endosperm and seed development.

Abiotic Stress Response in Plants

Download Abiotic Stress Response in Plants PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 9533076720
Total Pages : 362 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (33 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Abiotic Stress Response in Plants by : Arun Shanker

Download or read book Abiotic Stress Response in Plants written by Arun Shanker and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2011-08-29 with total page 362 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Plants, unlike animals, are sessile. This demands that adverse changes in their environment are quickly recognized, distinguished and responded to with suitable reactions. Drought, heat, cold and salinity are among the major abiotic stresses that adversely affect plant growth and productivity. In general, abiotic stress often causes a series of morphological, physiological, biochemical and molecular changes that unfavorably affect plant growth, development and productivity. Drought, salinity, extreme temperatures (cold and heat) and oxidative stress are often interrelated; these conditions singularly or in combination induce cellular damage. To cope with abiotic stresses, of paramount significance is to understand plant responses to abiotic stresses that disturb the homeostatic equilibrium at cellular and molecular level in order to identify a common mechanism for multiple stress tolerance. This multi authored edited compilation attempts to put forth an all-inclusive biochemical and molecular picture in a systems approach wherein mechanism and adaptation aspects of abiotic stress are dealt with. The chief objective of the book hence is to deliver state of the art information for comprehending the effects of abiotic stress in plants at the cellular level.

Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation

Download Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1607615002
Total Pages : 493 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (76 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation by : Jason X. -J. Yuan

Download or read book Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation written by Jason X. -J. Yuan and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2010-03-10 with total page 493 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation is a proceeding of the 2008 Grover Conference (Lost Valley Ranch and Conference Center, Sedalia, Colorado; September 3-7, 2008), which provided a forum for experts in the fields of those receptors, channels and transporters that have been identified as playing key roles in the physiology and pathophysiology of the pulmonary circulation. The book rigorously addresses: i) recent advances in our knowledge of receptors, channels and transporters and their role in regulation of pulmonary vascular function; ii) how modulation of expression and function of receptors, channels and transporters and their interrelationships contribute to the pathogenesis of pulmonary vascular disease; and iii) the therapeutic opportunities that may be revealed by enhancing our understanding of this area. The overall goal was to explore the mechanisms by which specific receptors, channels and transporters contribute to pulmonary vascular function in both health and disease, and how this knowledge may lead to novel interventions in lung dysplasia, pulmonary edema, lung injury, and pulmonary and systemic hypertension to reduce and prevent death from lung disease. Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation is divided into six parts. Part 1 (Ion Channels in the Pulmonary Vasculature: Basics and New Findings) is designated for basic knowledge and recent findings in the research field of ion channels in pulmonary circulation. There are five chapters in Part I discussing the function, expression, distribution and regulation of various ion channels present in pulmonary vascular smooth muscle cells and how these channels are integrated to regulate intracellular Ca2+ and cell functions. Part II (TRP Channels in the Pulmonary Vasculature: Basics and New Findings) is composed of five chapters that are exclusively designed to discuss the role of a recently identified family of cation channels, transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, in the regulation of pulmonary vascular tone and arterial structure. Part III (Pathogenic Role of Ion Channels in Pulmonary Vascular Disease) includes four chapters that discuss how abnormal function and expression of various ion channels contribute to changes in cell functions and the development of pulmonary hypertension. Part IV (Receptors and Signaling Cascades in Pulmonary Arterial Hypertension) consists of five chapters devoted to the role of bone morphogenetic protein receptors, Notch receptors, serotonin receptors, Rho kinase and vascular endothelial growth factor receptors in the development of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Part V (Receptors and Transporters: Role in Cell Function and Hypoxic Pulmonary Vasoconstriction) includes four chapters designed to illustrate the potential mechanisms involved in oxygen sensing and hypoxia-induced pulmonary vasoconstriction and hypertension. Part VI (Targeting Ion Channels and Membrane Receptors in Developing Novel Therapeutic Approaches for Pulmonary Vascular Disease) consists five chapters which discuss the translational research involving on membrane receptors, channels and transporters, including their potential as novel drug targets. We hope that Membrane Receptors, Channels and Transporters in Pulmonary Circulation will allow readers to foster new concepts and new collaborations and cooperations among investigators so as to further understand the role of receptors, channels and transporters in lung pathophysiology. The ultimate goal is to identify new mechanisms of disease, as well as new therapeutic targets for pulmonary vascular diseases. An additional outcome should be enhanced understanding of the role of these entities in systemic vascular pathophysiology, since the conference will include researchers and clinicians with interests in both pulmonary and systemic circulations.

Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Signaling

Download Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Signaling PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3642003907
Total Pages : 245 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (42 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Signaling by : Luis A. del Río

Download or read book Reactive Oxygen Species in Plant Signaling written by Luis A. del Río and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2009-06-22 with total page 245 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Oxygen (O ) appeared in significant amounts in the Earth’s atmosphere over 2. 2 2 billion years ago, largely due to the evolution of photosynthesis by cyanobacteria (Halliwell 2006). The O molecule is a free radical, as it has two impaired electrons 2 that have the same spin quantum number. This spin restriction makes O prefer to 2 accept its electrons one at a time, leading to the generation of the so-called reactive oxygen species (ROS). The chemical nature of these species dictates that they can create damage in cells. This has contributed to the creation of the “oxidative stress” concept; in this view, ROS are unavoidable toxic products of O metabolism and 2 aerobic organisms have evolved antioxidant defences to protect against this tox- ity (Halliwell 1981; Fridovich 1998). Indeed, even in present-day plants, which are full of antioxidants, much of the protein synthetic activity of chloroplasts is used to replace oxidatively damaged D1 and other proteins (Halliwell 2006). Yet, the use of the “oxidative stress” term implies that ROS exert their effects through indiscriminate widespread inactivation of cellular functions. In this context, ROS must not be able to react with lipids, proteins or nucleic acids in order to avoid any damage to vital cellular components. However, genetic evidence has suggested that, in planta, purely physicoche- cal damage may be more limited than previously thought (Foyer and Noctor 2005).