Nazi Empire Building And The Holocaust In Ukraine

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Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine

Author : Wendy Lower
Publisher : Univ of North Carolina Press
ISBN 13 : 9780807876916
Total Pages : 328 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (769 download)

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Book Synopsis Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine by : Wendy Lower

Download or read book Nazi Empire-Building and the Holocaust in Ukraine written by Wendy Lower and published by Univ of North Carolina Press. This book was released on 2006-05-18 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: On 16 July 1941, Adolf Hitler convened top Nazi leaders at his headquarters in East Prussia to dictate how they would rule the newly occupied eastern territories. Ukraine, the "jewel" in the Nazi empire, would become a German colony administered by Heinrich Himmler's SS and police, Hermann Goring's economic plunderers, and a host of other satraps. Focusing on the Zhytomyr region and weaving together official German wartime records, diaries, memoirs, and personal interviews, Wendy Lower provides the most complete assessment available of German colonization and the Holocaust in Ukraine. Midlevel "managers," Lower demonstrates, played major roles in mass murder, and locals willingly participated in violence and theft. Lower puts names and faces to local perpetrators, bystanders, beneficiaries, as well as resisters. She argues that Nazi actions in the region evolved from imperial arrogance and ambition; hatred of Jews, Slavs, and Communists; careerism and pragmatism; greed and fear. In her analysis of the murderous implementation of Nazi "race" and population policy in Zhytomyr, Lower shifts scholarly attention from Germany itself to the eastern outposts of the Reich, where the regime truly revealed its core beliefs, aims, and practices.

The Shoah in Ukraine

Author : Ray Brandon
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253001595
Total Pages : 394 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis The Shoah in Ukraine by : Ray Brandon

Download or read book The Shoah in Ukraine written by Ray Brandon and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2008-05-28 with total page 394 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: On the eve of the Nazi invasion of the USSR in 1941, Ukraine was home to the largest Jewish community in Europe. Between 1941 and 1944, some 1.4 million Jews were killed there, and one of the most important centers of Jewish life was destroyed. Yet, little is known about this chapter of Holocaust history. Drawing on archival sources from the former Soviet Union and bringing together researchers from Ukraine, Germany, Great Britain, the Netherlands, and the United States, The Shoah in Ukraine sheds light on the critical themes of perpetration, collaboration, Jewish-Ukrainian relations, testimony, rescue, and Holocaust remembrance in Ukraine. Contributors are Andrej Angrick, Omer Bartov, Karel C. Berkhoff, Ray Brandon, Martin Dean, Dennis Deletant, Frank Golczewski, Alexander Kruglov, Wendy Lower, Dieter Pohl, and Timothy Snyder.

Harvest of Despair

Author : Karel C. Berkhoff
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 9780674020788
Total Pages : 492 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (27 download)

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Book Synopsis Harvest of Despair by : Karel C. Berkhoff

Download or read book Harvest of Despair written by Karel C. Berkhoff and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2008-03-15 with total page 492 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “If I find a Ukrainian who is worthy of sitting at the same table with me, I must have him shot,” declared Nazi commissar Erich Koch. To the Nazi leaders, the Ukrainians were Untermenschen—subhumans. But the rich land was deemed prime territory for Lebensraum expansion. Once the Germans rid the country of Jews, Roma, and Bolsheviks, the Ukrainians would be used to harvest the land for the master race. Karel Berkhoff provides a searing portrait of life in the Third Reich’s largest colony. Under the Nazis, a blend of German nationalism, anti-Semitism, and racist notions about the Slavs produced a reign of terror and genocide. But it is impossible to understand fully Ukraine’s response to this assault without addressing the impact of decades of repressive Soviet rule. Berkhoff shows how a pervasive Soviet mentality worked against solidarity, which helps explain why the vast majority of the population did not resist the Germans. He also challenges standard views of wartime eastern Europe by treating in a more nuanced way issues of collaboration and local anti-Semitism. Berkhoff offers a multifaceted discussion that includes the brutal nature of the Nazi administration; the genocide of the Jews and Roma; the deliberate starving of Kiev; mass deportations within and beyond Ukraine; the role of ethnic Germans; religion and national culture; partisans and the German response; and the desperate struggle to stay alive. Harvest of Despair is a gripping depiction of ordinary people trying to survive extraordinary events.

Harvest of Despair

Author : Karel C. Berkhoff
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 067426200X
Total Pages : 480 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (742 download)

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Book Synopsis Harvest of Despair by : Karel C. Berkhoff

Download or read book Harvest of Despair written by Karel C. Berkhoff and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2008-03-15 with total page 480 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “If I find a Ukrainian who is worthy of sitting at the same table with me, I must have him shot,” declared Nazi commissar Erich Koch. To the Nazi leaders, the Ukrainians were Untermenschen—subhumans. But the rich land was deemed prime territory for Lebensraum expansion. Once the Germans rid the country of Jews, Roma, and Bolsheviks, the Ukrainians would be used to harvest the land for the master race. Karel Berkhoff provides a searing portrait of life in the Third Reich’s largest colony. Under the Nazis, a blend of German nationalism, anti-Semitism, and racist notions about the Slavs produced a reign of terror and genocide. But it is impossible to understand fully Ukraine’s response to this assault without addressing the impact of decades of repressive Soviet rule. Berkhoff shows how a pervasive Soviet mentality worked against solidarity, which helps explain why the vast majority of the population did not resist the Germans. He also challenges standard views of wartime eastern Europe by treating in a more nuanced way issues of collaboration and local anti-Semitism. Berkhoff offers a multifaceted discussion that includes the brutal nature of the Nazi administration; the genocide of the Jews and Roma; the deliberate starving of Kiev; mass deportations within and beyond Ukraine; the role of ethnic Germans; religion and national culture; partisans and the German response; and the desperate struggle to stay alive. Harvest of Despair is a gripping depiction of ordinary people trying to survive extraordinary events.

The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine

Author : Eric C. Steinhart
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 131624041X
Total Pages : 277 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (162 download)

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Book Synopsis The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine by : Eric C. Steinhart

Download or read book The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine written by Eric C. Steinhart and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2015-02-09 with total page 277 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The German invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War was central to Nazi plans for territorial expansion and genocidal demographic revolution. To create 'living space', Nazi Germany pursued two policies. The first was the systematic murder of millions of Jews, Slavs, Roma, and other groups that the Nazis found undesirable on racial, religious, ethnic, ideological, hereditary, or behavioral grounds. It also pursued a parallel, albeit smaller, program to mobilize supposedly Germanic residents of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union - so-called Volksdeutsche or ethnic Germans - as the vanguard of German expansion. This study recovers the intersection of these two projects in Transnistria, a portion of southern Ukraine that, because of its numerous Volksdeutsche communities, became an epicenter of both Nazi Volksdeutsche policy and the Holocaust in conquered Soviet territory, ultimately asking why local residents, whom German authorities identified as Volksdeutsche, participated in the Holocaust with apparent enthusiasm.

The Paradox of Ukrainian Lviv

Author : Tarik Cyril Amar
Publisher : Cornell University Press
ISBN 13 : 1501700847
Total Pages : 369 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (17 download)

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Book Synopsis The Paradox of Ukrainian Lviv by : Tarik Cyril Amar

Download or read book The Paradox of Ukrainian Lviv written by Tarik Cyril Amar and published by Cornell University Press. This book was released on 2015-11-17 with total page 369 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Paradox of Ukrainian Lviv reveals the local and transnational forces behind the twentieth-century transformation of Lviv into a Soviet and Ukrainian urban center. Lviv's twentieth-century history was marked by violence, population changes, and fundamental transformation ethnically, linguistically, and in terms of its residents' self-perception. Against this background, Tarik Cyril Amar explains a striking paradox: Soviet rule, which came to Lviv in ruthless Stalinist shape and lasted for half a century, left behind the most Ukrainian version of the city in history. In reconstructing this dramatically profound change, Amar illuminates the historical background in present-day identities and tensions within Ukraine.

The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine

Author : Eric C. Steinhart
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 9781107659452
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (594 download)

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Book Synopsis The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine by : Eric C. Steinhart

Download or read book The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine written by Eric C. Steinhart and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2018-11-22 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The German invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War was central to Nazi plans for territorial expansion and genocidal demographic revolution. To create "living space," Nazi Germany pursued two policies. The first was the systematic murder of millions of Jews, Slavs, Roma, and other groups that the Nazis found undesirable on racial, religious, ethnic, ideological, hereditary, or behavioral grounds. It also pursued a parallel, albeit smaller, program to mobilize supposedly Germanic residents of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union - so-called Volksdeutsche or ethnic Germans - as the vanguard of German expansion. This study recovers the intersection of these two projects in Transnistria, a portion of southern Ukraine that, because of its numerous Volksdeutsche communities, became an epicenter of both Nazi Volksdeutsche policy and the Holocaust in conquered Soviet territory, ultimately asking why local residents, whom German authorities identified as Volksdeutsche, participated in the Holocaust with apparent enthusiasm.

The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine

Author : United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781316234747
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (347 download)

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Book Synopsis The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine by : United States Holocaust Memorial Museum

Download or read book The Holocaust and the Germanization of Ukraine written by United States Holocaust Memorial Museum and published by . This book was released on 2015 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The German invasion of the Soviet Union during the Second World War was central to Nazi plans for territorial expansion and genocidal demographic revolution. To create 'living space', Nazi Germany pursued two policies. The first was the systematic murder of millions of Jews, Slavs, Roma, and other groups that the Nazis found undesirable on racial, religious, ethnic, ideological, hereditary, or behavioral grounds. It also pursued a parallel, albeit smaller, program to mobilize supposedly Germanic residents of Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union - so-called Volksdeutsche or ethnic Germans - as the vanguard of German expansion. This study recovers the intersection of these two projects in Transnistria, a portion of southern Ukraine that, because of its numerous Volksdeutsche communities, became an epicenter of both Nazi Volksdeutsche policy and the Holocaust in conquered Soviet territory, ultimately asking why local residents, whom German authorities identified as Volksdeutsche, participated in the Holocaust with apparent enthusiasm.

Hitler's Furies

Author : Wendy Lower
Publisher : Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
ISBN 13 : 0547863381
Total Pages : 289 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (478 download)

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Book Synopsis Hitler's Furies by : Wendy Lower

Download or read book Hitler's Furies written by Wendy Lower and published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. This book was released on 2013 with total page 289 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: About the participation of German women in World War II and in the Holocaust.

The Nazi Ancestral Proof

Author : Eric Ehrenreich
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253116872
Total Pages : 265 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (531 download)

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Book Synopsis The Nazi Ancestral Proof by : Eric Ehrenreich

Download or read book The Nazi Ancestral Proof written by Eric Ehrenreich and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2007-10-10 with total page 265 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How could Germans, inhabitants of the most scientifically advanced nation in the world in the early 20th century, have espoused the inherently unscientific racist doctrines put forward by the Nazi leadership? Eric Ehrenreich traces the widespread acceptance of Nazi policies requiring German individuals to prove their Aryan ancestry to the popularity of ideas about eugenics and racial science that were advanced in the late Imperial and Weimar periods by practitioners of genealogy and eugenics. After the enactment of Nazi racial laws in the 1930s, the Reich Genealogical Authority, employing professional genealogists, became the providers and arbiters of the ancestral proof. This is the first detailed study of the operation of the ancestral proof in the Third Reich and the link between Nazi racism and earlier German genealogical practices. The widespread acceptance of this racist ideology by ordinary Germans helped create the conditions for the Final Solution.

Fires of Hatred

Author : Norman M. Naimark
Publisher : Harvard University Press
ISBN 13 : 0674975820
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (749 download)

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Book Synopsis Fires of Hatred by : Norman M. Naimark

Download or read book Fires of Hatred written by Norman M. Naimark and published by Harvard University Press. This book was released on 2002-09-19 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Of all the horrors of the last century--perhaps the bloodiest century of the past millennium--ethnic cleansing ranks among the worst. The term burst forth in public discourse in the spring of 1992 as a way to describe Serbian attacks on the Muslims of Bosnia-Herzegovina, but as this landmark book attests, ethnic cleansing is neither new nor likely to cease in our time.

Bloodlands

Author : Timothy Snyder
Publisher : Basic Books
ISBN 13 : 0465032974
Total Pages : 546 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (65 download)

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Book Synopsis Bloodlands by : Timothy Snyder

Download or read book Bloodlands written by Timothy Snyder and published by Basic Books. This book was released on 2012-10-02 with total page 546 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: From the author of the international bestseller On Tyranny, the definitive history of Hitler’s and Stalin’s politics of mass killing, explaining why Ukraine has been at the center of Western history for the last century. Americans call the Second World War “the Good War.” But before it even began, America’s ally Stalin had killed millions of his own citizens—and kept killing them during and after the war. Before Hitler was defeated, he had murdered six million Jews and nearly as many other Europeans. At war’s end, German and Soviet killing sites fell behind the Iron Curtain, leaving the history of mass killing in darkness. Assiduously researched, deeply humane, and utterly definitive, Bloodlands is a new kind of European history, presenting the mass murders committed by the Nazi and Stalinist regimes as two aspects of a single story. With a new afterword addressing the relevance of these events to the contemporary decline of democracy, Bloodlands is required reading for anyone seeking to understand the central tragedy of modern history and its meaning today.

Black Earth

Author : Timothy Snyder
Publisher : Tim Duggan Books
ISBN 13 : 1101903465
Total Pages : 480 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (19 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Earth by : Timothy Snyder

Download or read book Black Earth written by Timothy Snyder and published by Tim Duggan Books. This book was released on 2015-09-08 with total page 480 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A brilliant, haunting, and profoundly original portrait of the defining tragedy of our time. In this epic history of extermination and survival, Timothy Snyder presents a new explanation of the great atrocity of the twentieth century, and reveals the risks that we face in the twenty-first. Based on new sources from eastern Europe and forgotten testimonies from Jewish survivors, Black Earth recounts the mass murder of the Jews as an event that is still close to us, more comprehensible than we would like to think, and thus all the more terrifying. The Holocaust began in a dark but accessible place, in Hitler's mind, with the thought that the elimination of Jews would restore balance to the planet and allow Germans to win the resources they desperately needed. Such a worldview could be realized only if Germany destroyed other states, so Hitler's aim was a colonial war in Europe itself. In the zones of statelessness, almost all Jews died. A few people, the righteous few, aided them, without support from institutions. Much of the new research in this book is devoted to understanding these extraordinary individuals. The almost insurmountable difficulties they faced only confirm the dangers of state destruction and ecological panic. These men and women should be emulated, but in similar circumstances few of us would do so. By overlooking the lessons of the Holocaust, Snyder concludes, we have misunderstood modernity and endangered the future. The early twenty-first century is coming to resemble the early twentieth, as growing preoccupations with food and water accompany ideological challenges to global order. Our world is closer to Hitler's than we like to admit, and saving it requires us to see the Holocaust as it was --and ourselves as we are. Groundbreaking, authoritative, and utterly absorbing, Black Earth reveals a Holocaust that is not only history but warning.

In the Midst of Civilized Europe

Author : Jeffrey Veidlinger
Publisher : Metropolitan Books
ISBN 13 : 1250116260
Total Pages : 298 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (51 download)

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Book Synopsis In the Midst of Civilized Europe by : Jeffrey Veidlinger

Download or read book In the Midst of Civilized Europe written by Jeffrey Veidlinger and published by Metropolitan Books. This book was released on 2021-10-26 with total page 298 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: FINALIST FOR THE NATIONAL JEWISH BOOK AWARD * SHORTLISTED FOR THE LIONEL GELBER PRIZE “The mass killings of Jews from 1918 to 1921 are a bridge between local pogroms and the extermination of the Holocaust. No history of that Jewish catastrophe comes close to the virtuosity of research, clarity of prose, and power of analysis of this extraordinary book. As the horror of events yields to empathetic understanding, the reader is grateful to Veidlinger for reminding us what history can do.” —Timothy Snyder, author of Bloodlands Between 1918 and 1921, over a hundred thousand Jews were murdered in Ukraine by peasants, townsmen, and soldiers who blamed the Jews for the turmoil of the Russian Revolution. In hundreds of separate incidents, ordinary people robbed their Jewish neighbors with impunity, burned down their houses, ripped apart their Torah scrolls, sexually assaulted them, and killed them. Largely forgotten today, these pogroms—ethnic riots—dominated headlines and international affairs in their time. Aid workers warned that six million Jews were in danger of complete extermination. Twenty years later, these dire predictions would come true. Drawing upon long-neglected archival materials, including thousands of newly discovered witness testimonies, trial records, and official orders, acclaimed historian Jeffrey Veidlinger shows for the first time how this wave of genocidal violence created the conditions for the Holocaust. Through stories of survivors, perpetrators, aid workers, and governmental officials, he explains how so many different groups of people came to the same conclusion: that killing Jews was an acceptable response to their various problems. In riveting prose, In the Midst of Civilized Europe repositions the pogroms as a defining moment of the twentieth century.

Bringing the Dark Past to Light

Author : John-Paul Himka
Publisher : U of Nebraska Press
ISBN 13 : 1496210204
Total Pages : 946 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (962 download)

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Book Synopsis Bringing the Dark Past to Light by : John-Paul Himka

Download or read book Bringing the Dark Past to Light written by John-Paul Himka and published by U of Nebraska Press. This book was released on 2019-06-12 with total page 946 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite the Holocaust's profound impact on the history of Eastern Europe, the communist regimes successfully repressed public discourse about and memory of this tragedy. Since the collapse of communism in 1989, however, this has changed. Not only has a wealth of archival sources become available, but there have also been oral history projects and interviews recording the testimonies of eyewitnesses who experienced the Holocaust as children and young adults. Recent political, social, and cultural developments have facilitated a more nuanced and complex understanding of the continuities and discontinuities in representations of the Holocaust. People are beginning to realize the significant role that memory of Holocaust plays in contemporary discussions of national identity in Eastern Europe. This volume of original essays explores the memory of the Holocaust and the Jewish past in postcommunist Eastern Europe. Devoting space to every postcommunist country, the essays in Bringing the Dark Past to Light explore how the memory of the "dark pasts" of Eastern European nations is being recollected and reworked. In addition, it examines how this memory shapes the collective identities and the social identity of ethnic and national minorities. Memory of the Holocaust has practical implications regarding the current development of national cultures and international relationships.

The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933 –1945: Volume II

Author : Geoffrey P. Megargee
Publisher : Indiana University Press
ISBN 13 : 0253002028
Total Pages : 2015 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (53 download)

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Book Synopsis The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933 –1945: Volume II by : Geoffrey P. Megargee

Download or read book The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Encyclopedia of Camps and Ghettos, 1933 –1945: Volume II written by Geoffrey P. Megargee and published by Indiana University Press. This book was released on 2012-05-04 with total page 2015 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “Stands without doubt as the definitive reference guide on this topic in the world today.” —Holocaust and Genocide Studies This volume of the extraordinary encyclopedia from the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum offers a comprehensive account of how the Nazis conducted the Holocaust throughout the scattered towns and villages of Poland and the Soviet Union. It covers more than 1,150 sites, including both open and closed ghettos. Regional essays outline the patterns of ghettoization in nineteen German administrative regions. Each entry discusses key events in the history of the ghetto; living and working conditions; activities of the Jewish Councils; Jewish responses to persecution; demographic changes; and details of the ghetto’s liquidation. Personal testimonies help convey the character of each ghetto, while source citations provide a guide to additional information. Documentation of hundreds of smaller sites—previously unknown or overlooked in the historiography of the Holocaust—make this an indispensable reference work on the destroyed Jewish communities of Eastern Europe. “A very detailed analysis and history of the events that took place in the towns, villages, and cities of German-occupied Eastern Europe . . . .A rich source of information.” —Library Journal “Focuses specifically on the ghettos of Nazi-occupied Eastern Europe . . . stands without doubt as the definitive reference guide on this topic in the world today. This is not hyperbole, but simply a recognition of the meticulous collaborative research that went into assembling such a massive collection of information.” —Holocaust and Genocide Studies “No other work provides the same level of detail and supporting material.” —Choice

Learning from the Germans

Author : Susan Neiman
Publisher : Farrar, Straus and Giroux
ISBN 13 : 0374715521
Total Pages : 432 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (747 download)

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Book Synopsis Learning from the Germans by : Susan Neiman

Download or read book Learning from the Germans written by Susan Neiman and published by Farrar, Straus and Giroux. This book was released on 2019-08-27 with total page 432 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As an increasingly polarized America fights over the legacy of racism, Susan Neiman, author of the contemporary philosophical classic Evil in Modern Thought, asks what we can learn from the Germans about confronting the evils of the past In the wake of white nationalist attacks, the ongoing debate over reparations, and the controversy surrounding Confederate monuments and the contested memories they evoke, Susan Neiman’s Learning from the Germans delivers an urgently needed perspective on how a country can come to terms with its historical wrongdoings. Neiman is a white woman who came of age in the civil rights–era South and a Jewish woman who has spent much of her adult life in Berlin. Working from this unique perspective, she combines philosophical reflection, personal stories, and interviews with both Americans and Germans who are grappling with the evils of their own national histories. Through discussions with Germans, including Jan Philipp Reemtsma, who created the breakthrough Crimes of the Wehrmacht exhibit, and Friedrich Schorlemmer, the East German dissident preacher, Neiman tells the story of the long and difficult path Germans faced in their effort to atone for the crimes of the Holocaust. In the United States, she interviews James Meredith about his battle for equality in Mississippi and Bryan Stevenson about his monument to the victims of lynching, as well as lesser-known social justice activists in the South, to provide a compelling picture of the work contemporary Americans are doing to confront our violent history. In clear and gripping prose, Neiman urges us to consider the nuanced forms that evil can assume, so that we can recognize and avoid them in the future.