Macroeconomic Paradigms and Economic Policy

Download Macroeconomic Paradigms and Economic Policy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 131667942X
Total Pages : 355 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (166 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomic Paradigms and Economic Policy by : Nicola Acocella

Download or read book Macroeconomic Paradigms and Economic Policy written by Nicola Acocella and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2016-05-31 with total page 355 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The recent financial crisis has demonstrated the dangers of ignoring the factors that led to previous crises, and the effectiveness of the policies designed to deal with them. Over time, these macroeconomic policies have evolved, oscillating between state intervention and a free-market approach. Following a story that runs from the pre-Great Depression era up until the Financial Crisis of 2007–11, this book reveals an intimate connection between new macroeconomic ideas and policies and the events in the real economy that inspired them. It does this in an accessible, easy-to-follow style, first by focusing on the developments of economic theories and policies, and then by concentrating on the design of domestic and international institutions and economic governance. Written by three leading experts on the history of economic policy, the book is ideal for graduates and undergraduates studying macroeconomics, monetary policy and the history of economic thought.

Rediscovering Economic Policy as a Discipline

Download Rediscovering Economic Policy as a Discipline PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Cambridge University Press
ISBN 13 : 1108470491
Total Pages : 425 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (84 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Rediscovering Economic Policy as a Discipline by : Nicola Acocella

Download or read book Rediscovering Economic Policy as a Discipline written by Nicola Acocella and published by Cambridge University Press. This book was released on 2018-07-26 with total page 425 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A leading expert on economic policy makes the convincing case for the foundation, coordination and reach of government action through economic policy. Presenting justifications for government intervention in coping with market failures, Acocella applies the theory of economic policy to current global issues.

Economics: Complex Windows

Download Economics: Complex Windows PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 884700344X
Total Pages : 229 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (47 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Economics: Complex Windows by : Massimo Salzano

Download or read book Economics: Complex Windows written by Massimo Salzano and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2006-01-17 with total page 229 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: “In some ways, the e?ect of achieving understanding is to reverse completely our initial attitude of mind. For everyone starts (as we have said) by being perplexed by some fact or other: for instance... the fact that the diagonal of a square is incommensurable with the side. Anyone who has not yet seen why the side and the diagonal have no common unit regards this as quite extra- dinary. But one ends up in the opposite frame of mind... for nothing would so much ?abbergast a mathematician as if the diagonal and side of a square were to become commensurable”. [Aristotele] This is the ?rst volume of a new series entitled “New Economic Windows”. Each volume in the series will, we hope, provide pointers towards a better understanding of the nature of economic phenomena and help to “reverse our initial state of mind” as economists. As H. Simon observed, Economics must be considered a “hard”, (in the sense of di?cult rather than precise), science. As he cogently argued, the problems dealt with are so complex they “cannot simply be reduced to analytically solvable models or decomposed into sepa- 1 rate sub processes”. In this he was following on from Einstein who, many years earlier, when asked why he had not turned his attention to economics said that he found it too di?cult a subject to handle scienti?cally.

Macroeconomics

Download Macroeconomics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : World Scientific
ISBN 13 : 9814289442
Total Pages : 611 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (142 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomics by : Jagdish Handa

Download or read book Macroeconomics written by Jagdish Handa and published by World Scientific. This book was released on 2010 with total page 611 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book presents the stylized facts on the important variables (output, inflation, money supply and interest rates, etc.) of the macro economy and uses them to differentiate how well particular economic theories perform or fail to do so. On the determination of aggregate demand, this book presents two approaches: the traditional IS-LM analysis under the assumption that the money supply is exogenous because the central bank uses its monetary policy to control it, and the emerging IS-IRT analysis under the assumption that the interest rate is the exogenous monetary policy variable set by the central bank to manipulate aggregate demand in the economy. The IS-IRT analysis is important for the macro analyses of many economies, yet is totally neglected in most textbooks on macroeconomics. The chapter on Paradigms in Economics introduces students to the heritage of ideas in macroeconomics, and the evolution of ideas and approaches over the last two centuries. It also provides the justification for the simultaneous relevance of both Classical ideas and Keynesian ones. The two growth theory chapters go beyond the Solow growth model to cover the broad evolution of growth from Malthus's theory to the present endogenous approaches, and the link between money supply, inflation and growth over very long periods.

Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy

Download Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 110 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (257 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy by : Paul de Grauwe

Download or read book Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy written by Paul de Grauwe and published by . This book was released on 1995 with total page 110 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Macroeconomics in Context

Download Macroeconomics in Context PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 131728965X
Total Pages : 934 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (172 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomics in Context by : Sebastian Dullien

Download or read book Macroeconomics in Context written by Sebastian Dullien and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2017-08-23 with total page 934 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Macroeconomics in Context: A European Perspective lays out the principles of macroeconomics in a manner that is thorough, up to date, and relevant to students. With a clear presentation of economic theory throughout, this latest addition to the bestselling "In Context" set of textbooks is written with a specific focus on European data, institutions, and historical events, offering engaging treatment of high-interest topics, including sustainability, Brexit, the euro crisis, and rising inequality. Policy issues are presented in context (historical, institutional, social, political, and ethical), and always with reference to human well-being. This book is divided into four parts, covering the following key issues: The context of economic analysis, including basic macroeconomic statistics and tools; The basics of macroeconomic measurements, including GDP, inflation, and unemployment, as well as alternative measures of well-being, and the particular structures of the European economies; Methods for analyzing monetary and fiscal policy, including an in-depth coverage of the instruments and approaches of the European central bank and some coverage of an open economy; The application of the tools learnt to selected macroeconomic issues, such as the euro crisis, the global financial crisis, public debt, global development, and environmental sustainability. Far more than any other existing macroeconomic textbook, this book combines real-world relevance of the topics covered with a strong focus on European institutions and structures within an approach that explains multiple economic paradigms. This combination helps to raise students’ interest in macroeconomics as well as enhance their understanding of the power and limitation of macroeconomic analysis. Visit http://www.bu.edu/eci/education-materials/textbooks/macroeconomics-in-context-a-european-perspective/ for online resources for both lecturers and students. A video of a panel discussion about the book can be found at https://youtu.be/xjHJrW9WP44.

Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy

Download Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (92 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy by : Paul De Grauwe (econoom)

Download or read book Paradigms of Macroeconomic Policy for the Open Economy written by Paul De Grauwe (econoom) and published by . This book was released on 1995 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Macroeconomics in Context

Download Macroeconomics in Context PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Taylor & Francis
ISBN 13 : 1000800415
Total Pages : 869 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (8 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomics in Context by : Neva Goodwin

Download or read book Macroeconomics in Context written by Neva Goodwin and published by Taylor & Francis. This book was released on 2022-12-30 with total page 869 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Macroeconomics in Context lays out the principles of macroeconomics in a manner that is thorough, up to date, and relevant to students. Like its counterpart, Microeconomics in Context, the book is uniquely attuned to economic, social, and environmental realities. The “In Context” books offer engaging coverage of current topics including policy responses to recession and inflation, inequality, deficits and government debt, economic impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic, and the economics of environmental sustainability. This fourth edition includes: Improved and concise discussions of introductory topics, especially on key economic activities, macroeconomic goals, and economic models Further emphasis on inequality, environmental sustainability, financialization, the changing nature of work, and international developments such as the role of transnational corporations and supply chain issues Discussion of the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on macroeconomic factors like well-being, inequality, and labor markets Presentation of policy issues in historical, environmental, institutional, social, political, and ethical contexts, including an updated discussion of fiscal policy in relation to the Biden administration’s infrastructure and social investment spending Clear explanations of basic economic concepts alongside more in-depth analysis of macroeconomics models and economic activity This book combines real-world relevance with a thorough grounding in multiple economic paradigms. It is the ideal textbook for modern introductory courses in macroeconomics. The book’s companion website is available at: http://www.bu.edu/eci/macro

The Blockchain Alternative

Download The Blockchain Alternative PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Apress
ISBN 13 : 1484226747
Total Pages : 262 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (842 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Blockchain Alternative by : Kariappa Bheemaiah

Download or read book The Blockchain Alternative written by Kariappa Bheemaiah and published by Apress. This book was released on 2017-02-26 with total page 262 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Examine what would happen if we were to deploy blockchain technology at the sovereign level and use it to create a decentralized cashless economy. This book explains how finance and economics work today, and how the convergence of various technologies related to the financial sector can help us find solutions to problems, such as excessive debt creation, banks getting too big to fail, and shadow banking. The Blockchain Alternative offers sensible corrections to outdated and incorrect dogmas, such as the efficient markets hypothesis and rational expectations theory. You’ll also be introduced to universal basic income, the consequences of going cashless, why complexity economics needs to be understood and what kinds of tools and theories you'll need to redefine the existing definition of capitalism. While the book does discuss technologies and methods that are primed for our future, a number of references are made to economic history and the works of great thinkers from a different era. You’ll see how the blockchain can be used to deploy solutions that were devised in the past, but which can serve as the antidote to our current economic malaises. You'll discover that what is required today is not an adaptation of the old theories, but a new methodology that is suited to this new era. Without undertaking such an endeavor, one will always be burdened with a definition of capitalism that is out of kilter with the evolution of our digital humanity. What would this mean to monetary and fiscal policy, market structure and our current understanding of economics? More importantly would we need to change our current understanding of capitalism? And if we were to change our perceptions, what would the future version look like? This book answers these questions, and analyses some of the most pertinent issues of our generation. What You’ll Learn Examine fractional banking, debt, and the financialization of assets Gain a firm understanding of the “too big to fail” theory, smart contracts, and Fintech Review economics and agent-based modelling Use the blockchain and complexity economics to rethink economics and capitalistic systems Who This Book Is For The primary audience is bankers and other finance professionals, policy makers, and students of finance and economics. The secondary audience is anyone seeking a deeper understanding of the current financial system, the blockchain, and the future of capitalism. Praise for The Blockchain Alternative “...a bold and pioneering effort to make sense of how emerging digital technologies might be used to reshape public policies, including macroeconomic and social policies, in basic ways. Everyone interested in this very important emerging question should read this book." - Dr. Sanjay G. Reddy, Associate Professor of Economics at The New School for Social Research and Research Associate of the Initiative for Policy Dialogue at Columbia University. “Writing on blockchain today is analogous to writing about the internet, before it became massively distributed. The book pushes us to think about the quantum leap that this technology may infer to our capitalist model, if scaled at the pace described by the book. Written with the support of strong empirical models but also with an open mind towards the future, this is a must read for anyone interested in becoming part of the new economic infrastructure” - Dr. Mark Esposito, Harvard University’s Division of Continuing Education & Judge Business School, University of Cambridge “With a rigorously balanced dosage of versatility and rationale we are allured into a multifaceted trajectory across ingrained yet functionally arcane economic models, only to plunge into a conceptually revolutionary realm which irreversibly stimulates us into envisaging a fascinating novel scheme of world order”. - Ioana Surpateanu, Political Adviser to the European Parliament “If there is only one book that I am reading on how blockchain is going to change our lives, it will have to be "The Blockchain Alternative." - Dr. Terence Tse, Associate Professor of Finance, ESCP Europe Business School

Macroeconomic Issues Today

Download Macroeconomic Issues Today PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : M.E. Sharpe
ISBN 13 : 9780765615039
Total Pages : 268 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (15 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomic Issues Today by : Robert Barry Carson

Download or read book Macroeconomic Issues Today written by Robert Barry Carson and published by M.E. Sharpe. This book was released on 2005 with total page 268 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: "Now revised and updated throughout to reflect critical changes in economic policy, and including all-new coverage of the current debate on the Social Security system, this acclaimed text provides a unique approach to understanding what the practice of economics is all about. In non-technical, everyday language, it covers current macroeconomic issues and offers proposed solutions from Conservative, Liberal, and Radical perspectives." "The book's unique approach stimulates critical thinking on everyday issues that traditional texts either ignore or present as "settled" debates. It helps students to understand the dual role that ideology and logical/empirical argumentation play in economics. Issues are presented as stand-alone subjects that can be read in any sequence and used to supplement a wide range of principles of economics texts."--BOOK JACKET.

Rethinking Expectations

Download Rethinking Expectations PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Princeton University Press
ISBN 13 : 0691155232
Total Pages : 440 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (911 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Rethinking Expectations by : Roman Frydman

Download or read book Rethinking Expectations written by Roman Frydman and published by Princeton University Press. This book was released on 2013 with total page 440 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book originated from a 2010 conference marking the fortieth anniversary of the publication of the landmark "Phelps volume," Microeconomic Foundations of Employment and Inflation Theory, a book that is often credited with pioneering the currently dominant approach to macroeconomic analysis. However, in their provocative introductory essay, Roman Frydman and Edmund Phelps argue that the vast majority of macroeconomic and finance models developed over the last four decades derailed, rather than built on, the Phelps volume's "microfoundations" approach. Whereas the contributors to the 1970 volume recognized the fundamental importance of according market participants' expectations an autonomous role, contemporary models rely on the rational expectations hypothesis (REH), which rules out such a role by design. The financial crisis that began in 2007, preceded by a spectacular boom and bust in asset prices that REH models implied could never happen, has spurred a quest for fresh approaches to macroeconomic analysis. While the alternatives to REH presented in Rethinking Expectations differ from the approach taken in the original Phelps volume, they are notable for returning to its major theme: understanding aggregate outcomes requires according expectations an autonomous role. In the introductory essay, Frydman and Phelps interpret the various efforts to reconstruct the field--some of which promise to chart its direction for decades to come. The contributors include Philippe Aghion, Sheila Dow, George W. Evans, Roger E. A. Farmer, Roman Frydman, Michael D. Goldberg, Roger Guesnerie, Seppo Honkapohja, Katarina Juselius, Enisse Kharroubi, Blake LeBaron, Edmund S. Phelps, John B. Taylor, Michael Woodford, and Gylfi Zoega.

Theoretical Foundations of Macroeconomic Policy

Download Theoretical Foundations of Macroeconomic Policy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317239393
Total Pages : 245 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (172 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Theoretical Foundations of Macroeconomic Policy by : Giovanni Di Bartolomeo

Download or read book Theoretical Foundations of Macroeconomic Policy written by Giovanni Di Bartolomeo and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-07-15 with total page 245 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The recent economic events driven by the great financial crisis of 2007-08 has challenged some "dogma", highlighting various limits and drawbacks of current paradigms. The crisis showed the limitations of monetary policy and led to a revaluation of what levels of public debt can be considered safe. This volume aims to refresh the debate on some important long-run macroeconomic issues from new and fresh perspectives. Theoretical Foundations of Macroeconomic Policy raises a number of questions relating to the challenges faced by macroeconomic theory and policies. The common line is the long run and policy perspective. The first part of the book is devoted to the theory of growth and productivity. The second part concentrates on long-run effects of fiscal and monetary policy. Specifically, topics investigated by the international range of authors are the theory of optimal growth, the productivity policies and production function estimations, demand- vs. supply- driven growth, optimal debt default and the incompleteness of financial markets, the long-run optimal inflation target and its relationship with public finance, the long term effects of government budget constraints on growth, and effect on optimal policies in non-market clearing environment. The book will be of interest to postgraduates, researchers, and academics studying macroeconomics and fiscal policies.

Whatës Right with Macroeconomics?

Download Whatës Right with Macroeconomics? PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Edward Elgar Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1781007403
Total Pages : 257 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (81 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Whatës Right with Macroeconomics? by : Robert M. Solow

Download or read book Whatës Right with Macroeconomics? written by Robert M. Solow and published by Edward Elgar Publishing. This book was released on 2012-01-01 with total page 257 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Global crises are very rare events. After the Great Depression and the Great Stagflation, new macroeconomic paradigms associated with a new policy regime emerged. This book addresses how some macroeconomic ideas have failed, and examines which theories researchers should preserve and develop. It questions how the field of economics Ð still reeling from the global financial crisis initiated in the summer of 2007 Ð will respond. The contributors, nine highly-renowned macroeconomists, highlight the virtues of eclectic macroeconomics over an authoritarian normative approach, and illustrate that macroeconomic reasoning can still be a useful tool for carrying out practical policy analysis. As for emerging research programmes, their wide-ranging chapters remind us that there are positive approaches to and reasons to believe in old-fashioned macroeconomics. This challenging and thought-provoking book will prove a stimulating read for researchers, academics and students of economics, as well as for professional economists.

Macroeconomic Policy and Public Choice

Download Macroeconomic Policy and Public Choice PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 280 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (321 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomic Policy and Public Choice by : David Kiefer

Download or read book Macroeconomic Policy and Public Choice written by David Kiefer and published by Springer. This book was released on 1997 with total page 280 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book considers the connections between macroeconomics and government politics. The central idea is the existence of a political economic equilibrium in which the government acts to dampen the business cycle. Special attention is given to relevant data and to the possibility of hypothesis testing. This is a revised and extended study edition that is updated to include topics such as political business cycles, government debt, and deficit and social security.

Macroeconomic Theory and Stabilisation Policy

Download Macroeconomic Theory and Stabilisation Policy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Rl Innactive Titles
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 424 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (43 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Macroeconomic Theory and Stabilisation Policy by : Andrew A. Stevenson

Download or read book Macroeconomic Theory and Stabilisation Policy written by Andrew A. Stevenson and published by Rl Innactive Titles. This book was released on 1988 with total page 424 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The role and conduct of macroeconomic policy is examined in the light of recent developments in theory. The first Chapter of the book is concerned with the debate about the nature and causes of unemployment and inflation. The second section investigates the theory of monetary and fiscal policy in closed and open economics. The final chapter contains a full analysis of macroeconomic interdependence and policy coordination. For advanced undergraduate and postgraduate students of macroeconomic theory and policy. Contents: Introduction: The Theory of Aggregate Demand; Classical Versus Keynesian Economics: The Debate on Underemployment Equilibrium; Aggregate Supply: Monetarism and New Classical Macroeconomics; Aggregate Supply and Stabilization Policies: The Keynesian Perspective; Money, Financial Markets, and Aggregate Demand; Fiscal Policy and Aggregate Demand; Macroeconomic Policy and the Balance of Payments; Macroeconomic Policy and the Exchange Rate; The Design of Macroeconomic Policy; International Interdependence and Policy Coordination; Bibliography; Author Index; Subject Index.

Theory of Macroeconomic Policy

Download Theory of Macroeconomic Policy PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0192638882
Total Pages : 735 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (926 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Theory of Macroeconomic Policy by : Christopher Tsoukis

Download or read book Theory of Macroeconomic Policy written by Christopher Tsoukis and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2020-10-29 with total page 735 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Theory of Macroeconomic Policy reviews the theoretical foundations of macroeconomic, fiscal, and monetary, policy. It offers a panoramic view of macroeconomic theory, covering a wide range of topics that are not customarily dealt with in macroeconomics texts, as well as more standard material. Advanced theory is bridged with more elementary or intermediate material, and established models are reviewed alongside current research directions. There is an extensive review of empirical evidence on virtually every topic, supplemented by narrative accounts for various episodes. The policy implications of the various theories are emphasised throughout. The chapters are largely self-contained so that different courses can focus at different places. A 'Guidance for Further Study' Section and extensive bibliography give plenty of ideas for all levels of independent study, from Undergraduate Projects to MSc Dissertations to PhD Theses. Theory of Macroeconomic Policy presents a balance between: breadth as well as depth; analytical treatment and intuition; theory and evidence; vintage theories and current directions; theory and policy; (established) theory and debate. Theory of Macroeconomic Policy is an affirmation that there is a well-developed body of theory that is invaluable for an in-depth understanding of the macro-economy and policy; equally, there is much scope for critical discussion and debate.

The Sources of Macroeconomic Fluctuations in Developing Countries

Download The Sources of Macroeconomic Fluctuations in Developing Countries PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : International Monetary Fund
ISBN 13 : 1451922124
Total Pages : 42 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (519 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis The Sources of Macroeconomic Fluctuations in Developing Countries by : Mr.Alexander W. Hoffmaister

Download or read book The Sources of Macroeconomic Fluctuations in Developing Countries written by Mr.Alexander W. Hoffmaister and published by International Monetary Fund. This book was released on 1996-02-01 with total page 42 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper studies the sources of macroeconomic fluctuations in developing countries using a structural VAR approach. Identification of the sources is achieved using long-run restrictions derived from a theoretical model of a small open economy encompassing a large number of macroeconomic paradigms; the short-run dynamics are unrestricted. This framework is applied to Brazil and Korea. The results confirm that supply shocks are the main source of GDP fluctuations, even in the short run. Aggregate demand shocks are shown to be important in the short run in Brazil, but not in Korea. External shocks explain a small fraction of the variance of output, whereas the real exchange rate is driven mainly by fiscal shocks. Nominal shocks appear to have little impact on output and the real exchange rate.