Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Environmental and Energy Systems

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Author :
Publisher : MDPI
ISBN 13 : 3036500804
Total Pages : 322 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (365 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Environmental and Energy Systems by : Fabrizio Passarini

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) of Environmental and Energy Systems written by Fabrizio Passarini and published by MDPI. This book was released on 2021-04-01 with total page 322 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The transition towards renewable energy sources and “green” technologies for energy generation and storage is expected to mitigate the climate emergency in the coming years. However, in many cases, this progress has been hampered by our dependency on critical materials or other resources that are often processed at high environmental burdens. Yet, many studies have shown that environmental and energy issues are strictly interconnected and require a comprehensive understanding of resource management strategies and their implications. Life cycle assessment (LCA) is among the most inclusive analytical techniques to analyze sustainability benefits and trade-offs within complex systems and, in this Special Issue, it is applied to assess the mutual influences of environmental and energy dimensions. The selection of original articles, reviews, and case studies addressed covers some of the main driving applications for energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions, including power generation, bioenergy, biorefinery, building, and transportation. An insightful perspective on the current topics and technologies, and emerging research needs, is provided. Alone or in combination with integrative methodologies, LCA can be of pivotal importance and constitute the scientific foundation on which a full system understanding can be reached.

Life Cycle Analysis and Transportation Energy

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (137 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Analysis and Transportation Energy by : Alexandra B. Klass

Download or read book Life Cycle Analysis and Transportation Energy written by Alexandra B. Klass and published by . This book was released on 2017 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As government actors and the private sector attempt to de-carbonize the economy, the role of life cycle analysis (also know as life cycle assessment or “LCA”) has become increasingly important. In this essay, we explore the use of life cycle analysis in the transportation sector to assess its influence in federal and state policy efforts to move to a low carbon energy future. We first define life cycle analysis and explain its use in evaluating the environmental impacts of all stages of a product, from production, to use, to disposal. We then review the use of life cycle analysis in considering the carbon emissions associated with different types of biofuels, primarily ethanol, which now makes up 10% of every gallon of gasoline sold in the United States as a result of federal mandates. This evaluation shows that life cycle analysis for ethanol has undermined many of the basic premises federal policymakers relied upon to enact significant mandates and, for many years, major tax benefits, to promote the production and use of ethanol for transportation fuel. We then discuss the increasing application of life cycle analysis to electric vehicles (EVs), which compares the GHG emissions associated with the production, use, and disposal of EVs with conventional automobiles, and evaluates the source of electricity used to power EVs in different parts of the country. Not surprisingly, the lifecycle GHG emissions associated with an EV driven in California, where electricity is generated primarily by natural gas and renewable energy, are far lower than the GHG emissions associated with an EV driven in West Virginia, which relies almost exclusively on coal-fired electricity. We conclude by reflecting on the ways life cycle analysis can be used effectively to guide policymakers to incentivize the development of environmentally beneficial products and technologies. For instance, if today's life cycle analysis had been used to evaluate corn ethanol in the 1990s and early 2000s, policymakers may have paused before creating the significant incentives and mandates that exist today and that are now very difficult to eliminate. At the same time, however, there are risks in relying too heavily on life cycle analysis when information gaps exist in comparing alternative fuels and vehicles with traditional fuels and vehicles. Such information gaps may result in creating disincentives for potentially beneficial new products and technologies that, with sufficient support, may be critical to meeting de-carbonization goals in the transportation sector and the economy as a whole.

Life-Cycle Analysis of Energy Systems

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Author :
Publisher : Royal Society of Chemistry
ISBN 13 : 1849732868
Total Pages : 347 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (497 download)

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Book Synopsis Life-Cycle Analysis of Energy Systems by : Bent Sørensen

Download or read book Life-Cycle Analysis of Energy Systems written by Bent Sørensen and published by Royal Society of Chemistry. This book was released on 2011-06-06 with total page 347 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Life-cycle assessment of new energy solutions plays an important role in discussions about global warming mitigation options and the evaluation of concrete energy production and conversion installations. This book starts by describing the methodology of life-cycle analysis and life-cycle assessment of new energy solutions. It then goes on to cover, in detail, a range of applications to individual energy installations, national supply systems, and to the global energy system in a climate impact context. Coverage is not limited to issues related to commercial uses by consultants according to ISO norms. It also emphasizes life-cycle studies as an open-ended scientific discipline embracing economic issues of cost, employment, equity, foreign trade balances, ecological sustainability, and a range of geo-political and social issues. A wealth of applications are described and a discussion on the results obtained in each study is included. Example areas are fossil and nuclear power plants, renewable energy systems, and systems based on hydrogen or batteries as energy carriers. The analysis is continued to the end-users of energy, where energy use in transportation, industry and home are scrutinized for their life-cycle impacts. Biofuel production and the combustion of firewood in home fireplaces and stoves are amongst the issues discussed. A central theme of the book is global warming. The impacts of greenhouse gas emissions are meticulously mapped at a depth far beyond that of the IPCC reports. A novel and surprising finding is that more lives will be saved than lost as a direct consequence of a warmer climate. After a 2oC increase in temperature, the reduction in death rates in areas with cold winters would outweigh the increase in the death rates in hot climates. However, this is only one of several impacts from greenhouse gases, and the remaining ones are still overwhelmingly negative. The fact that some population groups may benefit from higher temperatures (notably the ones most responsible for greenhouse gas emissions) whilst others (who did not contribute much to the problem) suffer is one of the main points of the book. The book is suitable as a university textbook and as a reference source for engineers, managers and public bodies responsible for planning and licensing.

Life Cycle Assessment of Renewable Energy Sources

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Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 1447153642
Total Pages : 301 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (471 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment of Renewable Energy Sources by : Anoop Singh

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment of Renewable Energy Sources written by Anoop Singh and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2013-09-02 with total page 301 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Governments are setting challenging targets to increase the production of energy and transport fuel from sustainable sources. The emphasis is increasingly on renewable sources including wind, solar, geothermal, biomass based biofuel, photovoltaics or energy recovery from waste. What are the environmental consequences of adopting these other sources? How do these various sources compare to each other? Life Cycle Assessment of Renewable Energy Sources tries to answer these questions based on the universally adopted method of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This book introduces the concept and importance of LCA in the framework of renewable energy sources and discusses the key issues in conducting their LCA. This is followed by an in-depth discussion of LCA for some of the most common bioenergy sources such as agricultural production systems for biogas and bioethanol, biogas from grass, biodiesel from palm oil, biodiesel from used cooking oil and animal fat, Jatropha biodiesel, lignocellulosic bioethanol, ethanol from cassava and sugarcane molasses, residential photovoltaic systems, wind energy, microalgal biodiesel, biohydrogen and biomethane. Through real examples, the versatility of LCA is well emphasized. Written by experts all over the globe, the book is a cornucopia of information on LCA of bioenergy systems and provides a platform for stimulation of new ideas and thoughts. The book is targeted at practitioners of LCA and will become a useful tool for researchers working on different aspects of bioenergy.

Progress in Life Cycle Assessment 2019

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Author :
Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 3030505197
Total Pages : 245 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (35 download)

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Book Synopsis Progress in Life Cycle Assessment 2019 by : Stefan Albrecht

Download or read book Progress in Life Cycle Assessment 2019 written by Stefan Albrecht and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2020-09-21 with total page 245 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book covers the latest developments in life cycle assessment LCA both in terms of methodology and its application in various research areas. It includes methodological questions as well as case studies concerning energy and mobility, materials and engineering, sustainable construction and future technologies. With numerous research articles from leading German and Austrian research institutes, the book is a valuable source for professionals working in the field of sustainability assessment, researchers interested in the current state of LCA research, and advanced university students in various scientific and technical fields. Chapter “Life Cycle Assessment of a Hydrogen and Fuel Cell RoPax Ferry Prototype” is available open access under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License via link.springer.com.

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services

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Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136525505
Total Pages : 273 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (365 download)

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Book Synopsis Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services by : Chris T. Hendrickson

Download or read book Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services written by Chris T. Hendrickson and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2010-09-30 with total page 273 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Environmental life cycle assessment is often thought of as cradle to grave and therefore as the most complete accounting of the environmental costs and benefits of a product or service. However, as anyone who has done an environmental life cycle assessment knows, existing tools have many problems: data is difficult to assemble and life cycle studies take months of effort. A truly comprehensive analysis is prohibitive, so analysts are often forced to simply ignore many facets of life cycle impacts. But the focus on one aspect of a product or service can result in misleading indications if that aspect is benign while other aspects pollute or are otherwise unsustainable. This book summarizes the EIO-LCA method, explains its use in relation to other life cycle assessment models, and provides sample applications and extensions of the model into novel areas. A final chapter explains the free, easy-to-use software tool available on a companion website. (www.eiolca.net) The software tool provides a wealth of data, summarizing the current U.S. economy in 500 sectors with information on energy and materials use, pollution and greenhouse gas discharges, and other attributes like associated occupational deaths and injuries. The joint project of twelve faculty members and over 20 students working together over the past ten years at the Green Design Institute of Carnegie Mellon University, the EIO-LCA has been applied to a wide range of products and services. It will prove useful for research, industry, and in economics, engineering, or interdisciplinary classes in green design.

Gaseous Carbon Waste Streams Utilization

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Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309483360
Total Pages : 257 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (94 download)

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Book Synopsis Gaseous Carbon Waste Streams Utilization by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Download or read book Gaseous Carbon Waste Streams Utilization written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2019-02-22 with total page 257 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In the quest to mitigate the buildup of greenhouse gases in Earth's atmosphere, researchers and policymakers have increasingly turned their attention to techniques for capturing greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide and methane, either from the locations where they are emitted or directly from the atmosphere. Once captured, these gases can be stored or put to use. While both carbon storage and carbon utilization have costs, utilization offers the opportunity to recover some of the cost and even generate economic value. While current carbon utilization projects operate at a relatively small scale, some estimates suggest the market for waste carbon-derived products could grow to hundreds of billions of dollars within a few decades, utilizing several thousand teragrams of waste carbon gases per year. Gaseous Carbon Waste Streams Utilization: Status and Research Needs assesses research and development needs relevant to understanding and improving the commercial viability of waste carbon utilization technologies and defines a research agenda to address key challenges. The report is intended to help inform decision making surrounding the development and deployment of waste carbon utilization technologies under a variety of circumstances, whether motivated by a goal to improve processes for making carbon-based products, to generate revenue, or to achieve environmental goals.

Life Cycle Assessment

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Publisher : CSIRO PUBLISHING
ISBN 13 : 0643099204
Total Pages : 188 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (43 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment by : Ralph E Horne

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment written by Ralph E Horne and published by CSIRO PUBLISHING. This book was released on 2009-03-20 with total page 188 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has developed in Australia over the last 20 years into a technique for systematically identifying the resource flows and environmental impacts associated with the provision of products and services. Interest in LCA has accelerated alongside growing demand to assess and reduce greenhouse gas emissions across different manufacturing and service sectors. Life Cycle Assessment focuses on the reflective practice of LCA, and provides critical insight into the technique and how it can be used as a problem-solving tool. It describes the distinctive strengths and limitations of LCA, with an emphasis on practice in Australia, as well as the application of LCA in waste management, the built environment, water and agriculture. Supported by examples and case studies, each chapter investigates contemporary challenges for environmental assessment and performance improvement in these key sectors. LCA methodologies are compared to the emerging climate change mitigation policy and practice techniques, and the uptake of ‘quick’ LCA and management tools are considered in the light of current and changing environmental agendas. The authors also debate the future prospects for LCA technique and applications.

Current Methods for Life Cycle Analyses of Low-Carbon Transportation Fuels in the United States

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780309273930
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (739 download)

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Book Synopsis Current Methods for Life Cycle Analyses of Low-Carbon Transportation Fuels in the United States by : National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine

Download or read book Current Methods for Life Cycle Analyses of Low-Carbon Transportation Fuels in the United States written by National Academies of Sciences Engineering and Medicine and published by . This book was released on 2022-11-26 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Transportation is the largest source of greenhouse gas emissions in the United States, with petroleum accounting for 90 percent of transportation fuels. Policymakers encounter a range of questions as they consider low-carbon fuel standards to reduce emissions, including total emissions released from production to use of a fuel or the potential consequences of a policy. Life-cycle assessment is an essential tool for addressing these questions. This report provides researchers and practitioners with a toolkit for applying life-cycle assessment to estimate greenhouse gas emissions, including identification of the best approach to use for a stated policy goal, how to reduce uncertainty and variability through verification and certification, and the core assumptions that can be applied to various fuel types. Policymakers should still use a tailored approach for each fuel type, given that petroleum-based ground, air, and marine transportation fuels necessitate different considerations than alternative fuels including biofuels, hydrogen, and electricity. Ultimately, life-cycle assessments should clearly document what assumptions and methods are used to ensure transparency.

Life Cycle Assessment of Transportation Options for Commuters

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 16 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 (15 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment of Transportation Options for Commuters by :

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment of Transportation Options for Commuters written by and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 16 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In order to compare modes of transportation in terms of their environmental impact, a complete life cycle assessment (LCA) was conducted. Using Carnegie-Mellon's EIO-LCA methodology the manufacturing, assembly, operation, and infrastructure life stages were considered for energy input required. Building upon available research for the impact of vehicle and public transportation, the impact of these phases was calculated for walking, bicycling, and electric-bicycling. Electric bicycles use less than 10% of the energy required to power a sedan for each mile traveled and emit 90% fewer pollutants per passengermile- traveled than a bus operating off peak. Both habits and financial motivators impact the efficiency at which a form of transportation operates. For example, due to the amount of time a public bus runs offpeak, its average emissions per passenger-mile-traveled is greater than the emissions of a Boeing 737 per passenger-mile-traveled. These relationships and factors are explored in the concluding section.

Life Cycle Assessment

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Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9789810505905
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (59 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment by : Kun-Mo Lee

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment written by Kun-Mo Lee and published by . This book was released on 2004 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries

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Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 111915202X
Total Pages : 702 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (191 download)

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Book Synopsis Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries by : Alain A. Vertes

Download or read book Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries written by Alain A. Vertes and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2020-06-10 with total page 702 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Reviews the latest advances in biofuel manufacturing technologies and discusses the deployment of other renewable energy for transportation Aimed at providing an interface useful to business and scientific managers, this book focuses on the key challenges that still impede the realization of the billion-ton renewable fuels vision. It places great emphasis on a global view of the topic, reviewing deployment and green energy technology in different countries across Africa, Asia, South America, the EU, and the USA. It also integrates scientific, technological, and business development perspectives to highlight the key developments that are necessary for the global replacement of fossil fuels with green energy solutions. Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries examines the most recent developments in biofuel manufacturing technologies in light of business, financial, value chain, and supply chain concerns. It also covers the use of other renewable energy sources like solar energy for transportation and proposes a view of the challenges over the next two to five decades, and how these will deeply modify the industrial world in the third millennium. The coming of age of electric vehicles is also looked at, as is the impact of their deployment on the biomass to biofuels value chain. Offers extensive updates on the field of green energy for global industries Covers the structure of the energy business; chemicals and diesel from biomass; ethanol and butanol; hydrogen and methane; and more Provides an expanded focus on the next generation of energy technologies Reviews the latest advances in biofuel manufacturing technologies Integrates scientific, technological and business perspectives Highlights important developments needed for replacing fossil fuels with green energy Green Energy to Sustainability: Strategies for Global Industries will appeal to academic researchers working on the production of fuels from renewable feedstocks and those working in green and sustainable chemistry, and chemical/process engineering. It is also an excellent textbook for courses in bioprocessing technology, renewable resources, green energy, and sustainable chemistry.

Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Systems

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Author :
Publisher : MDPI
ISBN 13 : 3036505245
Total Pages : 198 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (365 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Systems by : Guillermo San Miguel

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment of Energy Systems written by Guillermo San Miguel and published by MDPI. This book was released on 2021-04-14 with total page 198 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This Special Issue on “LCA of Energy Systems” contains inspiring contributions on assessing the sustainability of novel technologies destined to shape the future of our energy sector. These include battery-based and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, geothermal energy, hydropower, biomass gasification, national electricity systems, and waste incineration. The analysis of trends and singularities will be invaluable to product designers, engineers, and policy makers. Furthermore, these exercises also contribute to refining the life cycle framework and harmonizing methodological decisions. Our hope is that this should be a step toward promoting the use of science and knowledge to shape a better world for everyone.

Life-Cycle Assessment

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Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 9781566700153
Total Pages : 150 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (1 download)

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Book Synopsis Life-Cycle Assessment by : Battelle Memorial In

Download or read book Life-Cycle Assessment written by Battelle Memorial In and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 1994-07-22 with total page 150 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Life-Cycle Assessment presents a brief overview of the development of the life-cycle assessment process and develops guidelines and principles for implementation of a product life-cycle inventory analysis. The book describes inventory analysis, impact analysis, and improvement analysis-the three components of a product life-cycle assessment. It discusses the major stages in a life cycle, including raw materials acquisition, materials manufacture, final product fabrication, filling/packaging/distribution, and consumer use and disposal.

Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services

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Author :
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1136525491
Total Pages : 274 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (365 download)

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Book Synopsis Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services by : Chris T. Hendrickson

Download or read book Environmental Life Cycle Assessment of Goods and Services written by Chris T. Hendrickson and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2010-09-30 with total page 274 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Environmental life cycle assessment is often thought of as cradle to grave and therefore as the most complete accounting of the environmental costs and benefits of a product or service. However, as anyone who has done an environmental life cycle assessment knows, existing tools have many problems: data is difficult to assemble and life cycle studies take months of effort. A truly comprehensive analysis is prohibitive, so analysts are often forced to simply ignore many facets of life cycle impacts. But the focus on one aspect of a product or service can result in misleading indications if that aspect is benign while other aspects pollute or are otherwise unsustainable. This book summarizes the EIO-LCA method, explains its use in relation to other life cycle assessment models, and provides sample applications and extensions of the model into novel areas. A final chapter explains the free, easy-to-use software tool available on a companion website. (www.eiolca.net) The software tool provides a wealth of data, summarizing the current U.S. economy in 500 sectors with information on energy and materials use, pollution and greenhouse gas discharges, and other attributes like associated occupational deaths and injuries. The joint project of twelve faculty members and over 20 students working together over the past ten years at the Green Design Institute of Carnegie Mellon University, the EIO-LCA has been applied to a wide range of products and services. It will prove useful for research, industry, and in economics, engineering, or interdisciplinary classes in green design.

Hidden Costs of Energy

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Author :
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309155800
Total Pages : 506 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (91 download)

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Book Synopsis Hidden Costs of Energy by : National Research Council

Download or read book Hidden Costs of Energy written by National Research Council and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2010-05-26 with total page 506 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Despite the many benefits of energy, most of which are reflected in energy market prices, the production, distribution, and use of energy causes negative effects. Many of these negative effects are not reflected in energy market prices. When market failures like this occur, there may be a case for government interventions in the form of regulations, taxes, fees, tradable permits, or other instruments that will motivate recognition of these external or hidden costs. The Hidden Costs of Energy defines and evaluates key external costs and benefits that are associated with the production, distribution, and use of energy, but are not reflected in market prices. The damage estimates presented are substantial and reflect damages from air pollution associated with electricity generation, motor vehicle transportation, and heat generation. The book also considers other effects not quantified in dollar amounts, such as damages from climate change, effects of some air pollutants such as mercury, and risks to national security. While not a comprehensive guide to policy, this analysis indicates that major initiatives to further reduce other emissions, improve energy efficiency, or shift to a cleaner electricity generating mix could substantially reduce the damages of external effects. A first step in minimizing the adverse consequences of new energy technologies is to better understand these external effects and damages. The Hidden Costs of Energy will therefore be a vital informational tool for government policy makers, scientists, and economists in even the earliest stages of research and development on energy technologies.

Life Cycle Assessment

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Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319564757
Total Pages : 1215 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (195 download)

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Book Synopsis Life Cycle Assessment by : Michael Z. Hauschild

Download or read book Life Cycle Assessment written by Michael Z. Hauschild and published by Springer. This book was released on 2017-09-01 with total page 1215 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is a uniquely pedagogical while still comprehensive state-of-the-art description of LCA-methodology and its broad range of applications. The five parts of the book conveniently provide: I) the history and context of Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) with its central role as quantitative and scientifically-based tool supporting society’s transitioning towards a sustainable economy; II) all there is to know about LCA methodology illustrated by a red-thread example which evolves as the reader advances; III) a wealth of information on a broad range of LCA applications with dedicated chapters on policy development, prospective LCA, life cycle management, waste, energy, construction and building, nanotechnology, agrifood, transport, and LCA-related concepts such as footprinting, ecolabelling,design for environment, and cradle to cradle. IV) A cookbook giving the reader recipes for all the concrete actions needed to perform an LCA. V) An appendix with an LCA report template, a full example LCA report serving as inspiration for students who write their first LCA report, and a more detailed overview of existing LCIA methods and their similarities and differences.