Integrated Microsystems

Download Integrated Microsystems PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1351833561
Total Pages : 762 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (518 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Integrated Microsystems by : Krzysztof Iniewski

Download or read book Integrated Microsystems written by Krzysztof Iniewski and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2017-12-19 with total page 762 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As rapid technological developments occur in electronics, photonics, mechanics, chemistry, and biology, the demand for portable, lightweight integrated microsystems is relentless. These devices are getting exponentially smaller, increasingly used in everything from video games, hearing aids, and pacemakers to more intricate biomedical engineering and military applications. Edited by Kris Iniewski, a revolutionary in the field of advanced semiconductor materials, Integrated Microsystems: Electronics, Photonics, and Biotechnology focuses on techniques for optimized design and fabrication of these intelligent miniaturized devices and systems. Composed of contributions from experts in academia and industry around the world, this reference covers processes compatible with CMOS integrated circuits, which combine computation, communications, sensing, and actuation capabilities. Light on math and physics, with a greater emphasis on microsystem design and configuration and electrical engineering, this book is organized in three sections—Microelectronics and Biosystems, Photonics and Imaging, and Biotechnology and MEMs. It addresses key topics, including physical and chemical sensing, imaging, smart actuation, and data fusion and management. Using tables, figures, and equations to help illustrate concepts, contributors examine and explain the potential of emerging applications for areas including biology, nanotechnology, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidics, and photonics.

Integrated Microsystems

Download Integrated Microsystems PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1439836205
Total Pages : 762 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (398 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Integrated Microsystems by : Krzysztof Iniewski

Download or read book Integrated Microsystems written by Krzysztof Iniewski and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2011-10-11 with total page 762 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As rapid technological developments occur in electronics, photonics, mechanics, chemistry, and biology, the demand for portable, lightweight integrated microsystems is relentless. These devices are getting exponentially smaller, increasingly used in everything from video games, hearing aids, and pacemakers to more intricate biomedical engineering and military applications. Edited by Kris Iniewski, a revolutionary in the field of advanced semiconductor materials, Integrated Microsystems: Electronics, Photonics, and Biotechnology focuses on techniques for optimized design and fabrication of these intelligent miniaturized devices and systems. Composed of contributions from experts in academia and industry around the world, this reference covers processes compatible with CMOS integrated circuits, which combine computation, communications, sensing, and actuation capabilities. Light on math and physics, with a greater emphasis on microsystem design and configuration and electrical engineering, this book is organized in three sections—Microelectronics and Biosystems, Photonics and Imaging, and Biotechnology and MEMs. It addresses key topics, including physical and chemical sensing, imaging, smart actuation, and data fusion and management. Using tables, figures, and equations to help illustrate concepts, contributors examine and explain the potential of emerging applications for areas including biology, nanotechnology, micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS), microfluidics, and photonics.

Optical Nano- and Microsystems for Bioanalytics

Download Optical Nano- and Microsystems for Bioanalytics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 3642254985
Total Pages : 332 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (422 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Optical Nano- and Microsystems for Bioanalytics by : Wolfgang Fritzsche

Download or read book Optical Nano- and Microsystems for Bioanalytics written by Wolfgang Fritzsche and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2012-02-03 with total page 332 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book describes the state of the art in the field of bioanalytical nano- and microsystems with optical functionality. In 12 chapters distinguished scientists and leaders in their respective fields show how various optical technologies have been miniaturized and integrated over the last few decades in order to be combined with nano- and microsystems for applications in the life sciences. The main detection and characterization technologies are introduced, and examples of the superiority of these integrated approaches compared to traditional ones are provided. Examples from e.g. the fields of optical waveguides, integrated interferometers, surface plasmon resonance or Raman spectroscopy are introduced and discussed, and it is shown how these approaches have led to novel functionalities and thereby novel applications.

Advanced Integrated Communication Microsystems

Download Advanced Integrated Communication Microsystems PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470409789
Total Pages : 496 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (74 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Advanced Integrated Communication Microsystems by : Joy Laskar

Download or read book Advanced Integrated Communication Microsystems written by Joy Laskar and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2009-02-10 with total page 496 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Learn the fundamentals of integrated communication microsystems Advanced communication microsystems—the latest technology to emerge in the semiconductor sector after microprocessors—require integration of diverse signal processing blocks in a power-efficient and cost-effective manner. Typically, these systems include data acquisition, data processing, telemetry, and power management. The overall development is a synergy among system, circuit, and component-level designs with a strong emphasis on integration. This book is targeted at students, researchers, and industry practitioners in the semiconductor area who require a thorough understanding of integrated communication microsystems from a developer's perspective. The book thoroughly and carefully explores: Fundamental requirements of communication microsystems System design and considerations for wired and wireless communication microsystems Advanced block-level design techniques for communication microsystems Integration of communication systems in a hybrid environment Packaging considerations Power and form factor trade-offs in building integrated microsystems Advanced Integrated Communication Microsystems is an ideal textbook for advanced undergraduate and graduate courses. It also serves as a valuable reference for researchers and practitioners in circuit design for telecommunications and related fields.

Highly Integrated Microfluidics Design

Download Highly Integrated Microfluidics Design PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Artech House
ISBN 13 : 159693980X
Total Pages : 269 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (969 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Highly Integrated Microfluidics Design by : Dan E. Angelescu

Download or read book Highly Integrated Microfluidics Design written by Dan E. Angelescu and published by Artech House. This book was released on 2011 with total page 269 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The recent development of microfluidics has lead to the concept of lab-on-a-chip, where several functional blocks are combined into a single device that can perform complex manipulations and characterizations on the microscopic fluid sample. However, integration of multiple functionalities on a single device can be complicated. This a cutting-edge resource focuses on the crucial aspects of integration in microfluidic systems. It serves as a one-stop guide to designing microfluidic systems that are highly integrated and scalable. This practical book covers a wide range of critical topics, from fabrication techniques and simulation tools, to actuation and sensing functional blocks and their inter-compatibility. This unique reference outlines the benefits and drawbacks of different approaches to microfluidic integration and provides a number of clear examples of highly integrated microfluidic systems.

Analytical Heat and Fluid Flow in Microchannels and Microsystems

Download Analytical Heat and Fluid Flow in Microchannels and Microsystems PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319233122
Total Pages : 164 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (192 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Analytical Heat and Fluid Flow in Microchannels and Microsystems by : Renato M. Cotta

Download or read book Analytical Heat and Fluid Flow in Microchannels and Microsystems written by Renato M. Cotta and published by Springer. This book was released on 2015-10-10 with total page 164 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book focuses on the modeling and analysis of heat and fluid flow in microchannels and micro-systems, compiling a number of analytical and hybrid numerical-analytical solutions for models that account for the relevant micro-scale effects, with the corresponding experimental analysis validation when applicable. The volume stands as the only available compilation of easy to use analytically-based solutions for micro-scale heat and fluid flow problems, that systematically incorporates the most relevant micro-scale effects into the mathematical models, followed by their physical interpretation on the micro-system behavior.

Microsystems for Bioelectronics

Download Microsystems for Bioelectronics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : William Andrew
ISBN 13 : 9781437778410
Total Pages : 204 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (784 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Microsystems for Bioelectronics by : Victor V. Zhirnov

Download or read book Microsystems for Bioelectronics written by Victor V. Zhirnov and published by William Andrew. This book was released on 2010-11-23 with total page 204 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Microsystems for Bioelectronics is the ultimate guide in the biomedical application industry. It provides a physics-based assessment of the limitless potential of miniaturization technologies. This book goes far beyond the complete design of the final systems. It also discusses the developments of computation and communication subsystems. The future of this technology lies in understanding the scaling limits for the individual systems. This includes all of its components and the fundamental energy source that powers all autonomous microsystems. Rapid advances in microfabrication technologies are offering new opportunities and capabilities to develop systems for biomedical applications. These applications include the diagnostics community and those that are active in therapy services. Microsystems for Bioelectronics is one of the only books on the market today that goes into the comprehensive treatment of integrated microsystems. Discusses the diverse components that make up Microsystems Outlines the problems with miniaturization of energy sources Perfect reference for those in both the Engineering and Medical Profession

Microsystem Design

Download Microsystem Design PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 0306476010
Total Pages : 689 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (64 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Microsystem Design by : Stephen D. Senturia

Download or read book Microsystem Design written by Stephen D. Senturia and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2007-05-08 with total page 689 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It is a real pleasure to write the Foreword for this book, both because I have known and respected its author for many years and because I expect this book’s publication will mark an important milestone in the continuing worldwide development of microsystems. By bringing together all aspects of microsystem design, it can be expected to facilitate the training of not only a new generation of engineers, but perhaps a whole new type of engineer – one capable of addressing the complex range of problems involved in reducing entire systems to the micro- and nano-domains. This book breaks down disciplinary barriers to set the stage for systems we do not even dream of today. Microsystems have a long history, dating back to the earliest days of mic- electronics. While integrated circuits developed in the early 1960s, a number of laboratories worked to use the same technology base to form integrated sensors. The idea was to reduce cost and perhaps put the sensors and circuits together on the same chip. By the late-60s, integrated MOS-photodiode arrays had been developed for visible imaging, and silicon etching was being used to create thin diaphragms that could convert pressure into an electrical signal. By 1970, selective anisotropic etching was being used for diaphragm formation, retaining a thick silicon rim to absorb package-induced stresses. Impurity- and electrochemically-based etch-stops soon emerged, and "bulk micromachining" came into its own.

Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems

Download Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Artech House
ISBN 13 : 1596932473
Total Pages : 551 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (969 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems by : Muhannad S. Bakir

Download or read book Integrated Interconnect Technologies for 3D Nanoelectronic Systems written by Muhannad S. Bakir and published by Artech House. This book was released on 2008-11-30 with total page 551 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This cutting-edge book on off-chip technologies puts the hottest breakthroughs in high-density compliant electrical interconnects, nanophotonics, and microfluidics at your fingertips, integrating the full range of mathematics, physics, and technology issues together in a single comprehensive source. You get full details on state-of-the-art I/O interconnects and packaging, including mechanically compliant I/O approaches, fabrication, and assembly, followed by the latest advances and applications in power delivery design, analysis, and modeling. The book explores interconnect structures, materials, and packages for achieving high-bandwidth off-chip electrical communication, including optical interconnects and chip-to-chip signaling approaches, and brings you up to speed on CMOS integrated optical devices, 3D integration, wafer stacking technology, and through-wafer interconnects.

Hermeticity Testing of MEMS and Microelectronic Packages

Download Hermeticity Testing of MEMS and Microelectronic Packages PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Artech House
ISBN 13 : 1608075273
Total Pages : 197 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (8 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Hermeticity Testing of MEMS and Microelectronic Packages by : Suzanne Costello

Download or read book Hermeticity Testing of MEMS and Microelectronic Packages written by Suzanne Costello and published by Artech House. This book was released on 2013-10-01 with total page 197 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Packaging of microelectronics has been developing since the invention of the transistor in 1947. With the increasing complexity and decreasing size of the die, packaging requirements have continued to change. A step change in package requirements came with the introduction of the Micro-Electro-Mechanical System (MEMS) whereby interactions with the external environment are, in some cases, required. This resource is a rapid, definitive reference on hermetic packaging for the MEMS and microelectronics industry, giving practical guidance on traditional and newly developed test methods. This book includes up-to-date and applicable test methods for today’s package types. The authors cover the history and development of packaging, along with a view to understanding initial hermeticity testing requirements and the subsequent limitations of these methods when applied to new package types.

System-level Modeling of MEMS

Download System-level Modeling of MEMS PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 3527647120
Total Pages : 562 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (276 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis System-level Modeling of MEMS by : Oliver Brand

Download or read book System-level Modeling of MEMS written by Oliver Brand and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2012-12-20 with total page 562 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: System-level modeling of MEMS - microelectromechanical systems - comprises integrated approaches to simulate, understand, and optimize the performance of sensors, actuators, and microsystems, taking into account the intricacies of the interplay between mechanical and electrical properties, circuitry, packaging, and design considerations. Thereby, system-level modeling overcomes the limitations inherent to methods that focus only on one of these aspects and do not incorporate their mutual dependencies. The book addresses the two most important approaches of system-level modeling, namely physics-based modeling with lumped elements and mathematical modeling employing model order reduction methods, with an emphasis on combining single device models to entire systems. At a clearly understandable and sufficiently detailed level the readers are made familiar with the physical and mathematical underpinnings of MEMS modeling. This enables them to choose the adequate methods for the respective application needs. This work is an invaluable resource for all materials scientists, electrical engineers, scientists working in the semiconductor and/or sensor industry, physicists, and physical chemists.

CMOS Integrated Lab-on-a-chip System for Personalized Biomedical Diagnosis

Download CMOS Integrated Lab-on-a-chip System for Personalized Biomedical Diagnosis PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119218357
Total Pages : 288 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (192 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis CMOS Integrated Lab-on-a-chip System for Personalized Biomedical Diagnosis by : Hao Yu

Download or read book CMOS Integrated Lab-on-a-chip System for Personalized Biomedical Diagnosis written by Hao Yu and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2018-04-04 with total page 288 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A thorough examination of lab-on-a-chip circuit-level operations to improve system performance A rapidly aging population demands rapid, cost-effective, flexible, personalized diagnostics. Existing systems tend to fall short in one or more capacities, making the development of alternatives a priority. CMOS Integrated Lab-on-a-Chip System for Personalized Biomedical Diagnosis provides insight toward the solution, with a comprehensive, multidisciplinary reference to the next wave of personalized medicine technology. A standard complementary metal oxide semiconductor (CMOS) fabrication technology allows mass-production of large-array, miniaturized CMOS-integrated sensors from multi-modal domains with smart on-chip processing capability. This book provides an in-depth examination of the design and mechanics considerations that make this technology a promising platform for microfluidics, micro-electro-mechanical systems, electronics, and electromagnetics. From CMOS fundamentals to end-user applications, all aspects of CMOS sensors are covered, with frequent diagrams and illustrations that clarify complex structures and processes. Detailed yet concise, and designed to help students and engineers develop smaller, cheaper, smarter lab-on-a-chip systems, this invaluable reference: Provides clarity and insight on the design of lab-on-a-chip personalized biomedical sensors and systems Features concise analyses of the integration of microfluidics and micro-electro-mechanical systems Highlights the use of compressive sensing, super-resolution, and machine learning through the use of smart SoC processing Discusses recent advances in complementary metal oxide semiconductor-integrated lab-on-a-chip systems Includes guidance on DNA sequencing and cell counting applications using dual-mode chemical/optical and energy harvesting sensors The conventional reliance on the microscope, flow cytometry, and DNA sequencing leaves diagnosticians tied to bulky, expensive equipment with a central problem of scale. Lab-on-a-chip technology eliminates these constraints while improving accuracy and flexibility, ushering in a new era of medicine. This book is an essential reference for students, researchers, and engineers working in diagnostic circuitry and microsystems.

Current Advancements in Stereo Vision

Download Current Advancements in Stereo Vision PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : BoD – Books on Demand
ISBN 13 : 9535106600
Total Pages : 436 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (351 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Current Advancements in Stereo Vision by : Asim Bhatti

Download or read book Current Advancements in Stereo Vision written by Asim Bhatti and published by BoD – Books on Demand. This book was released on 2012-07-11 with total page 436 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is a new edition of stereo vision book series of INTECH Open Access Publisher and it presents diverse range of ideas and applications highlighting current research/technology trends and advances in the field of stereo vision. The topics covered in this book include fundamental theoretical aspects of robust stereo correspondence estimation, novel and robust algorithms, hardware implementation for fast execution and applications in wide range of disciplines. Particularly interesting approaches include neuromorphic engineering, probabilistic analysis and anisotropic reaction diffusion addressing the problem of stereo correspondence and the applications in mobile robotics for autonomous terrain mapping and navigation. SterCentre for Intelligent Systems Research (CISR), Institute of Technology, Research and Innovation (ITRI),eo algorithm with anisotropic reaction-diffusion systems utilizing biologically motivated reaction-diffusion systems with anisotropic diffusion coefficients makes it an interesting addition to the book.

Biological Applications of Microfluidics

Download Biological Applications of Microfluidics PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 0470074833
Total Pages : 562 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (7 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Biological Applications of Microfluidics by : Frank A. Gomez

Download or read book Biological Applications of Microfluidics written by Frank A. Gomez and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2008-02-15 with total page 562 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Microfluidics has numerous potential applications in biotechnology, pharmaceuticals, the life sciences, defense, public health, and agriculture. This book details recent advances in the biological applications of microfluidics, including cell sorting, DNA sequencing on-a-chip, microchip capillary electrophoresis, and synthesis on a microfluidic format. It covers microfabricated LOC technologies, advanced microfluidic tools, microfluidic culture platforms for stem cell and neuroscience research, and more. This is an all-in-one, hands-on resource for analytical chemists and researchers and an excellent text for students.

Micro Total Analysis Systems 2002

Download Micro Total Analysis Systems 2002 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Springer Science & Business Media
ISBN 13 : 9781402010095
Total Pages : 678 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (1 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Micro Total Analysis Systems 2002 by : Yoshinobu Baba

Download or read book Micro Total Analysis Systems 2002 written by Yoshinobu Baba and published by Springer Science & Business Media. This book was released on 2002-10-17 with total page 678 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The Sixth International Conference on Miniaturized Chemical and Biochemical Analysis Systems, known as /JTAS2002, will be fully dedicated to the latest scientific and technological developments in the field of miniaturized devices and systems for realizing not only chemical and biochemical analysis but also synthesis. The first /JTAS meeting was held in Enschede in 1994 with approximately 160 participants, bringing together the scientists with background in analytical and biochemistry with those with Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) in one workshop. We are grateful to Piet Bergveld and Albert van den Berg of MESA Research Institute of the University of Twente for their great efforts to arrange this exciting first meeting. The policy of the meeting was succeeded by late Prof. Dr. Michael Widmer in the second meeting, /JTAS'96 held in Basel with 275 participants. The first two meetings were held as informal workshops. From the third workshop, /JTAS'98 (420 participants) held in Banff, the workshop had become a worldwide conference. Participants continued to increase in /JTAS2000 (about 500 participants) held in Enschede and /JTAS2001 (about 700 participants) held in Monterey. The number of submitted papers also dramatically increased in this period from 130 in 1998, 230 in 2000 to nearly 400 in 2001. From 2001, /JTAS became an annual symposium. The steering committee meeting held in Monterey, confrrmed the policy of former /JTAS that quality rather than quantity would be the key-point and that the parallel-session format throughout the 3.

Microsystem Technology

Download Microsystem Technology PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 3527613013
Total Pages : 512 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (276 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Microsystem Technology by : Wolfgang Menz

Download or read book Microsystem Technology written by Wolfgang Menz and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2008-07-11 with total page 512 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This completely revised edition of a bestselling concise introduction to microsystems technology includes the latest trends in this emerging scientific discipline. The chapters on silicium and LIGA technology are greatly expanded, whilst new topics include application aspects in medicine and health technology, lithography and electroplating.

Programme and The Book of Abstracts / Tenth Annual Conference YUCOMAT 2008

Download Programme and The Book of Abstracts / Tenth Annual Conference YUCOMAT 2008 PDF Online Free

Author :
Publisher : Institute of Technical Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts
ISBN 13 : 868032115X
Total Pages : 242 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (83 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!


Book Synopsis Programme and The Book of Abstracts / Tenth Annual Conference YUCOMAT 2008 by : Dragan Uskoković

Download or read book Programme and The Book of Abstracts / Tenth Annual Conference YUCOMAT 2008 written by Dragan Uskoković and published by Institute of Technical Sciences of the Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. This book was released on 2008-08-20 with total page 242 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The First Conference on materials science and engineering, including physics, physical chemistry, condensed matter chemistry, and technology in general, was held in September 1995, in Herceg Novi. An initiative to establish Yugoslav Materials Research Society was born at the conference and, similar to other MR societies in the world, the programme was made and objectives determined. The Yugoslav Materials Research Society (Yu-MRS), a nongovernment and non-profit scientific association, was founded in 1997 to promote multidisciplinary goal-oriented research in materials science and engineering. The main task and objective of the Society has been to encourage creativity in materials research and engineering to reach a harmonic coordination between achievements in this field in our country and analogous activities in the world with an aim to include our country into global international projects. Until 2003, Conferences were held every second year and then they grew into Annual Conferences that were traditionally held in Herceg Novi in September of every year. In 2007 Yu-MRS formed two new MRS: MRS-Serbia (official successor of Yu-MRS) and MRS-Montenegro (in founding). In 2008, MRS – Serbia became a member of FEMS (Federation of European Materials Societies).