Groundwater Depletion in the United States (1900?2008)

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Author :
Publisher : CreateSpace
ISBN 13 : 9781500503062
Total Pages : 72 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (3 download)

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Book Synopsis Groundwater Depletion in the United States (1900?2008) by : Leonard F Konikow

Download or read book Groundwater Depletion in the United States (1900?2008) written by Leonard F Konikow and published by CreateSpace. This book was released on 2014-08-01 with total page 72 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A natural consequence of groundwater withdrawals is the removal of water from subsurface storage, but the overall rates and magnitude of groundwater depletion in the United States are not well characterized. This study evaluates long- term cumulative depletion volumes in 40 separate aquifers or areas and one land use category in the United States, bringing together information from the literature and from new analy- ses. Depletion is directly calculated using calibrated ground- water models, analytical approaches, or volumetric budget analyses for multiple aquifer systems. Estimated groundwater depletion in the United States during 1900-2008 totals approx- imately 1,000 cubic kilometers (km3). Furthermore, the rate of groundwater depletion has increased markedly since about 1950, with maximum rates occurring during the most recent period (2000-2008) when the depletion rate averaged almost 25 km3 per year (compared to 9.2 km3 per year averaged over the 1900-2008 timeframe).

Fundamentals of Groundwater

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Author :
Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119820138
Total Pages : 516 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (198 download)

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Book Synopsis Fundamentals of Groundwater by : Franklin W. Schwartz

Download or read book Fundamentals of Groundwater written by Franklin W. Schwartz and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2024-01-31 with total page 516 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A thoroughly updated classic on the fundamentals of groundwater The second edition of Fundamentals of Groundwater delivers an expert discussion of the fundamentals of groundwater in the hydrologic cycle and applications to contemporary problems in hydrogeology. The theme of the book is groundwater, broadly defined, and it covers the theory and practice of groundwater—from basic principles of physical and chemical hydrogeology to their application in traditional and emerging areas of practice. This new edition contains extensive revisions, including new discussions of human impacts on aquifers, and strategies and concepts for sustainable development of groundwater. It also covers the theory of groundwater flow—including concepts of hydraulic head and the Darcy equation—and ground water/surface water interactions, as well as geochemistry and contamination. Readers will also find A thorough introduction to the techniques of water resource investigations and regional groundwater flow Comprehensive explorations of groundwater chemistry and its applications in regional characterization and assessments of health impacts Practical discussions of groundwater contamination and water sustainability more generally Fulsome treatments of newly emerged contaminants, like PFAS, pathogens, agricultural contaminants, methane, arsenic, uranium, and redox processes Perfect for undergraduate and graduate students taking courses in hydrogeology, groundwater, geoscience, applied geoscience, and groundwater and contaminant processes, Fundamentals of Groundwater also benefits environmental consultants, geochemists, engineers, and geologists.

Aquatic Pollution

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Publisher : John Wiley & Sons
ISBN 13 : 1119304598
Total Pages : 1015 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (193 download)

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Book Synopsis Aquatic Pollution by : Edward A. Laws

Download or read book Aquatic Pollution written by Edward A. Laws and published by John Wiley & Sons. This book was released on 2017-02-24 with total page 1015 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the publication of the third edition of Aquatic Pollution in 2000, there have been many major developments within the field in terms of research, regulations, and also large-scale catastrophes that have had a significant impact on the aquatic environment; the Deepwater Horizon oil spill and the Fukushima nuclear disaster have taken their toll, and research on ocean acidification has developed enormously over the last decade. Recognizing, controlling, and mitigating aquatic pollution on a global scale is one of the most important and most difficult challenges facing society today. Fully updated to reflect current understanding and discussing these major recent developments, this fourth edition of Aquatic Pollution covers every aspect of pollution associated with urban runoff, acid rain, sewage disposal, pesticides, oil spills, nutrient loading, and more. Case studies of major pollution sites, all original to this new edition, help to illustrate points made in general discussion. Offering unprecedented depth of coverage, and discussing both fresh and sea water environments, this unique text provides a key teaching and learning tool for courses in environmental science, zoology, oceanography, biology, and civil or sanitary engineering, as well as a vital book for government policy makers. It is also an excellent primer for policymakers and activists focused on environmental issues.

The Water Problem

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Publisher : Brookings Institution Press
ISBN 13 : 0815727879
Total Pages : 210 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (157 download)

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Book Synopsis The Water Problem by : Pat Mulroy

Download or read book The Water Problem written by Pat Mulroy and published by Brookings Institution Press. This book was released on 2017-03-28 with total page 210 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Building water resilience is the single biggest challenge in a changing global climate. The United States faces a water crisis as critical as the energy crisis that once dominated headlines. Like the energy crisis, a solution can be found. Pat Mulroy, for many years general manager of the Southern Nevada Water Authority, the lead negotiator on the Colorado River for the State of Nevada, and a Brookings fellow, has gathered a number of practitioners and scholars to show us why we face a crisis caused by climate change and what we can do to alleviate it. While the focus recently has been on California, with its water restrictions and drought, many other parts of the United States are also suffering from current and potential water shortages that will only be exacerbated by climate change. The Water Problem takes us to Miami and the problem of rising oceans fouling freshwater reservoirs; Kansas and Nebraska, where intensive farming is draining age-old aquifers; and to the Southwest United States, where growing populations are creating enormous stresses on the already strained Colorado River. Mulroy and her contributors explore not just the problems, but also what we can do now to put in place measures to deal with a very real crisis.

America’s Water Crises

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Publisher : Springer Nature
ISBN 13 : 303127380X
Total Pages : 372 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (312 download)

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Book Synopsis America’s Water Crises by : David E. McNabb

Download or read book America’s Water Crises written by David E. McNabb and published by Springer Nature. This book was released on 2023-05-13 with total page 372 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is focused exclusively on water problems in the 48 U.S. states. The authors provide an accessible overview of the work of many federal, state and academic researchers and water system administrators whose investigations have focused on the state of water and the water crisis now accelerating in the United States. David McNabb and Carl Swenson seek to bring to a wider audience some of the current research findings and data on the perilous state of the United States’ surface and groundwater resources during this time of climate change and the extreme drought taking place in many sections of the nation. Descriptions of the water resource systems are based on research and the subsequent findings published by water scientists in the United States Geological Survey, the Environmental Protection Agency, the U.S. Corps of Engineers and water related agencies of the Departments of Agriculture and of the Interior and state and local water management agencies.

Advances in Groundwater Governance

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Author :
Publisher : CRC Press
ISBN 13 : 1351808419
Total Pages : 621 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (518 download)

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Book Synopsis Advances in Groundwater Governance by : Karen G. Villholth

Download or read book Advances in Groundwater Governance written by Karen G. Villholth and published by CRC Press. This book was released on 2017-12-14 with total page 621 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book addresses groundwater governance, a subject internationally recognized as crucial and topical for enhancing and safeguarding the benefits of groundwater and groundwater-dependent ecosystems to humanity, while ensuring water and food security under global change. The multiple and complex dimensions of groundwater governance are captured in 28 chapters, written by a team of leading experts from different parts of the world and with a variety of relevant professional backgrounds. The book aims to describe the state-of-the-art and latest developments regarding each of the themes addressed, paying attention to the wide variation of conditions observed around the globe. The book consists of four parts. The first part sets the stage by defining groundwater governance, exploring its emergence and evolution, framing it through a socio-ecological lens and describing groundwater policy and planning approaches. The second part discusses selected key aspects of groundwater governance. The third part zooms in on the increasingly important linkages between groundwater and other resources or sectors, and between local groundwater systems and phenomena or actions at the international or even global level. The fourth part, finally, presents a number of interesting case studies that illustrate contemporary practice in groundwater governance. In one volume, this highly accessible text not only familiarizes water professionals, decision-makers and local stakeholders with groundwater governance, but also provides them with ideas and inspiration for improving groundwater governance in their own environment.

The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight: Revised and Updated Third Edition

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Author :
Publisher : Harmony
ISBN 13 : 1400051576
Total Pages : 450 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight: Revised and Updated Third Edition by : Thom Hartmann

Download or read book The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight: Revised and Updated Third Edition written by Thom Hartmann and published by Harmony. This book was released on 2004-04-27 with total page 450 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While everything appears to be collapsing around us – ecodamage, genetic engineering, virulent diseases, the end of cheap oil, water shortages, global famine, wars – we can still do something about it and create a world that will work for us and for our children’s children. The inspiration for Leonardo DiCaprio’s feature documentary movie The Eleventh Hour and soon to be released HBO special Ice on Fire, Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight details what is happening to our planet, the reasons for our culture’s blind behavior, and how we can fix the problem. Thom Hartmann’s comprehensive book is one of the fundamental handbooks of the environmental activist movement. Now with fresh, updated material on our Earth’s rapid climate change and a focus on political activism and its effect on corporate behavior, The Last Hours of Ancient Sunlight helps us understand – and heal – our relationship to the world, to each other, and to our natural resources.

24-Hour Cities

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Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1317618319
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (176 download)

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Book Synopsis 24-Hour Cities by : Hugh F. Kelly

Download or read book 24-Hour Cities written by Hugh F. Kelly and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2016-07-15 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Winner of the Gold Award in the Tenth Annual Robert Bruss Real Estate Book Competition 24 Hour Cities is the very first full length book about America’s cities that never sleep. Over the last fifty years, the nation’s top live-work-play cities have proven themselves more than just vibrant urban environments for the elite. They are attracting a cross-section of the population from across the U.S. and are preferred destinations for immigrants of all income strata. This is creating a virtuous circle wherein economic growth enhances property values, stronger real estate markets sustain more reliable tax bases, and solid municipal revenues pay for better services that further attract businesses and talented individuals. Yet, just a generation ago, cities like New York, Boston, Washington, San Francisco, and Miami were broke (financially and physically), scarred by violence, and prime examples of urban dysfunction. How did the turnaround happen? And why are other cities still stuck with the hollow downtowns and sprawling suburbs that make for a 9-to-5 urban configuration? Hugh Kelly’s cross-disciplinary research identifies the ingredients of success, and the recipe that puts them together.

Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 2014

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Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 880 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 2014 by : United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies

Download or read book Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies Appropriations for 2014 written by United States. Congress. House. Committee on Appropriations. Subcommittee on Interior, Environment, and Related Agencies and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 880 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Economic Growth and Sustainability

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Publisher : Academic Press
ISBN 13 : 0128031085
Total Pages : 222 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (28 download)

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Book Synopsis Economic Growth and Sustainability by : Karen L. Higgins

Download or read book Economic Growth and Sustainability written by Karen L. Higgins and published by Academic Press. This book was released on 2014-11-24 with total page 222 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: How to sustain our world for future generations has perplexed us for centuries. We have reached a crossroads: we may choose the rocky path of responsibility or continue on the paved road of excess that promises hardship for our progeny. Independent efforts to resolve isolated issues are inadequate. Different from these efforts and from other books on the topic, this book uses systems thinking to understand the dominant forces that are shaping our hope for sustainability. It first describes a mental model - the bubble that holds our beliefs - that emerges from preponderant world views and explains current global trends. The model emphasizes economic growth and drives behavior toward short-term and self-motivated outcomes that thwart sustainability. The book then weaves statistical trends into a system diagram and shows how the economic, environmental, and societal contributors of sustainability interact. From this holistic perspective, it finds leverage points where actions can be most effective and combines eight areas of intervention into an integrated plan. By emphasizing both individual and collective actions, it addresses the conundrum of how to blend human nature with sustainability. Finally, it identifies primary three lessons we can learn by applying systems thinking to sustainability. Its metaphor-rich and accessible style makes the complex topic approachable and allows the reader to appreciate the intricate balance required to sustain life on Earth. Highlights the application of system thinking in economics Identifies systemic leveraging actions for achieving sustainability Outlines a comprehensive and integrated plan for achieving sustainable stewardship in the future

Wetlands and Water Resources: Ecological Solutions for the Environment

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Publisher : Frontiers Media SA
ISBN 13 : 2832505589
Total Pages : 182 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (325 download)

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Book Synopsis Wetlands and Water Resources: Ecological Solutions for the Environment by : Guangzhi Sun

Download or read book Wetlands and Water Resources: Ecological Solutions for the Environment written by Guangzhi Sun and published by Frontiers Media SA. This book was released on 2023-04-12 with total page 182 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Wetlands are usually located in complex landscapes. Multiple ecosystem services delivered by wetlands to human well-being should be considered in broader contexts of wetland functions, water quality, water resource management and wetland conservation. Natural wetlands are 'kidneys' and 'sponges' of the earth that remove water pollutants and provide hydrological regulation functions vital to the environment. Where the functions of the wetlands are weakened, actions of rehabilitations are needed to revitalize those functions. While worldwide many natural wetlands have disappeared due to climate change and/or human activities, constructed wetlands, which may be seen as 'artificial kidneys/sponges' of the earth, have been increasingly built to replicate the functions of the natural wetlands. This Research Topic aims to collect and present the latest research developments in natural and constructed wetlands in relation to either water resource functions or water quality. Articles published in this Research Topic will showcase new understandings of water balances and flow patterns, vegetation characteristics, and pollutant transformations in wetland systems; innovative designs and efficiencies of wastewater treatment wetlands; and technologies that revitalize the ecosystem functions of natural wetlands. These articles are expected to bring benefits to research communities, water and wastewater industries, and government agencies that deal with wetland water management and conservation. High-quality Original Research and Review articles in this field are all welcome for submission to this Research Topic. Research interests include but are not limited to the following areas: 1. Water balances and flow patterns in natural wetland systems. 2. The hydrological regulation functions and importance of natural wetlands in their environmental context. 3. Vegetation characteristics of natural wetlands and their functional importance in wetland water pollution control. 4. Techniques for the rehabilitation of degraded wetlands. 5. The role of constructed wetlands in wastewater treatment. 6. Innovative designs and efficiencies of wastewater treatment wetlands. 7. The modeling of hydrological and/or pollutant dynamics in wetland systems. 8. The ecohydrology of wetlands. 9. The role of wetlands in the global carbon cycle. 10. Impacts of climate change and human activities on wetland hydrology and water resources. Recognizing that hydrological and biogeochemical processes are basically coupled in wetlands and their landscapes, manuscripts that report their interactions are particularly welcome.

Family Resource Management

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Publisher : SAGE Publications
ISBN 13 : 1483383156
Total Pages : 382 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (833 download)

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Book Synopsis Family Resource Management by : Tami James Moore

Download or read book Family Resource Management written by Tami James Moore and published by SAGE Publications. This book was released on 2017-10-04 with total page 382 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Conversational in style and rich in application and discussion, Family Resource Management shows students how to apply knowledge and theory to the study of how families manage their resources for both survival and fulfillment. Multiple perspectives are used to broaden the base of understanding in a contemporary environment. The book unlocks the complexity of family decision making, enabling students to grasp both the concepts and the underlying explanations of family behavior. A strong theory base and the organization of material within the decision-making process framework facilitate understanding and retention. The Third Edition has been enhanced through surveys of educational professionals and extensive research of contemporary challenges emerging post 2008 recession and the 2016 election.

The Wildlife Techniques Manual

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Publisher : JHU Press
ISBN 13 : 1421436701
Total Pages : 1401 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (214 download)

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Book Synopsis The Wildlife Techniques Manual by : Nova J. Silvy

Download or read book The Wildlife Techniques Manual written by Nova J. Silvy and published by JHU Press. This book was released on 2020-07-28 with total page 1401 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The #1 selling wildlife management book for 40 years, now updated for the next generation of professionals and students. Since its original publication in 1960, The Wildlife Techniques Manual has remained the cornerstone text for the professional wildlife biologist. Now fully revised and updated, this eighth edition promises to be the most comprehensive resource on wildlife biology, conservation, and management for years to come. Superbly edited by Nova J. Silvy and published in association with The Wildlife Society, the 50 authoritative chapters included in this work provide a full synthesis of methods used in the field and laboratory. Chapter authors, all leading wildlife professionals, explain and critique traditional and new methodologies and offer thorough discussions of a wide range of relevant topics. To effectively incorporate the explosion of new information in the wildlife profession, this latest edition is logically organized into a 2-volume set: Volume 1 is devoted to research techniques and Volume 2 focuses on pragmatic management methodologies. Volume 1 describes research design and proper analytic methods prior to conducting research, as well as methods and considerations for capturing and handling wild animals and information on identification and marking of captured animals. It also includes new chapters on nutritional research and field sign identification, and on emerging topics, including structured decision-making. Finally, Volume 1 addresses measurements of wildlife abundance and habitat and research on individual animals. Volume 2 begins with a section on the relationship between research and management including public outreach, described in a context that encourages engagement prior to initiation of management. An adaptive management approach is described as a cornerstone of natural resource management, followed by a section on managing landscapes and wildlife populations. The volume also includes new chapters on ethics in wildlife science and conservation, conflict resolution and management, and land reclamation. A standard text in a variety of courses, the Techniques Manual, as it is commonly called, covers every aspect of modern wildlife management and provides practical information for applying the hundreds of methods described in its pages. This deft and thorough update ensures that The Wildlife Techniques Manual will remain an indispensable resource, one that professionals and students in wildlife biology, conservation, and management simply cannot do without.

The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2021 – Systems at breaking point

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Author :
Publisher : Food & Agriculture Org.
ISBN 13 : 9251361274
Total Pages : 393 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (513 download)

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Book Synopsis The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2021 – Systems at breaking point by : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations

Download or read book The State of the World’s Land and Water Resources for Food and Agriculture 2021 – Systems at breaking point written by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and published by Food & Agriculture Org.. This book was released on 2022-05-11 with total page 393 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Satisfying the changing food habits and increased demand for food intensifies pressure on the world’s water, land and soil resources. However, agriculture bears great promise to alleviate these pressures and provide multiple opportunities to contribute to global goals. Sustainable agricultural practices lead to water saving, soil conservation, sustainable land management, conservation of natural resources, ecosystem and climate change benefits. Accomplishing this requires accurate information and a major change in how we manage these resources. It also requires complementing efforts from outside the natural resources management domain to maximize synergies and manage trade-offs. The objective of SOLAW 2021 is to build awareness of the status of land and water resources, highlighting the risks, and informing on related opportunities and challenges, also underlining the essential contribution of appropriate policies, institutions and investments. Recent assessments, projections and scenarios from the international community show the continued and increasing depletion of land and water resources, loss of biodiversity, associated degradation and pollution, and scarcity in the primary natural resources. SOLAW 2021 highlights the major risks and trends related to land and water and presents means of resolving competition among users and generating multiple benefits for people and the environment. The DPSIR framework was followed in order to identify the Drivers, Pressures, Status, Impact and Responses. SOLAW 2021 provides an update of the knowledge base and presents a suite of responses and actions to inform decision-makers in the public, private, and civil sectors for a transformation from degradation and vulnerability toward sustainability and resilience.

American Agriculture, Water Resources, and Climate Change

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Author :
Publisher : University of Chicago Press
ISBN 13 : 0226830616
Total Pages : 403 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (268 download)

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Book Synopsis American Agriculture, Water Resources, and Climate Change by : Gary D. Libecap

Download or read book American Agriculture, Water Resources, and Climate Change written by Gary D. Libecap and published by University of Chicago Press. This book was released on 2023 with total page 403 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This paper highlights the role of agriculture in the American economy and society over time and points to farmer historical and contemporary responses to varying climatic conditions. It indicates the importance of water as an input to agricultural production and identifies possible impacts of climate change on access to water. It then summarizes a set of eleven papers from an NBER research project on water, climate change, and the agricultural sector.

Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses

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Author :
Publisher : MDPI
ISBN 13 : 3036508309
Total Pages : 254 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 (365 download)

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Book Synopsis Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses by : Renata Szymańska

Download or read book Responses of Plants to Environmental Stresses written by Renata Szymańska and published by MDPI. This book was released on 2021-09-01 with total page 254 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Environmental abiotic stresses, such as extreme temperatures, drought, excess light, salinity, and nutrient deficiency, have detrimental effects on plant growth, development, and yield. Plants are equipped with various adaptation mechanisms to cope with such unfavorable conditions. Our understanding of plants’ abiotic stress responses is crucial to maintaining efficient plant productivity. This book on the responses of plants to environmental stresses is an attempt to find answers to several basic questions related to their adaptation and protective mechanisms against abiotic stresses. The following chapters of the book describe examples of plants’ protective strategies, which cover physiological, cellular, biochemical, and genomic mechanisms. This book is aimed for use by advanced students and researchers in the area of stress biology, plant molecular biology and physiology, agriculture, biochemistry, as well as environmental sciences.

Integrated Groundwater Management

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Author :
Publisher : Springer
ISBN 13 : 3319235761
Total Pages : 756 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (192 download)

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Book Synopsis Integrated Groundwater Management by : Anthony J Jakeman

Download or read book Integrated Groundwater Management written by Anthony J Jakeman and published by Springer. This book was released on 2016-08-05 with total page 756 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The aim of this book is to document for the first time the dimensions and requirements of effective integrated groundwater management (IGM). Groundwater management is a formidable challenge, one that remains one of humanity’s foremost priorities. It has become a largely non-renewable resource that is overexploited in many parts of the world. In the 21st century, the issue moves from how to simply obtain the water we need to how we manage it sustainably for future generations, future economies, and future ecosystems. The focus then becomes one of understanding the drivers and current state of the groundwater resource, and restoring equilibrium to at-risk aquifers. Many interrelated dimensions, however, come to bear when trying to manage groundwater effectively. An integrated approach to groundwater necessarily involves many factors beyond the aquifer itself, such as surface water, water use, water quality, and ecohydrology. Moreover, the science by itself can only define the fundamental bounds of what is possible; effective IGM must also engage the wider community of stakeholders to develop and support policy and other socioeconomic tools needed to realize effective IGM. In order to demonstrate IGM, this book covers theory and principles, embracing: 1) an overview of the dimensions and requirements of groundwater management from an international perspective; 2) the scale of groundwater issues internationally and its links with other sectors, principally energy and climate change; 3) groundwater governance with regard to principles, instruments and institutions available for IGM; 4) biophysical constraints and the capacity and role of hydroecological and hydrogeological science including water quality concerns; and 5) necessary tools including models, data infrastructures, decision support systems and the management of uncertainty. Examples of effective, and failed, IGM are given. Throughout, the importance of the socioeconomic context that connects all effective IGM is emphasized. Taken as a whole, this work relates the many facets of effective IGM, from the catchment to global perspective.