From Freedom Fighters To Jihadists

Download From Freedom Fighters To Jihadists full books in PDF, epub, and Kindle. Read online From Freedom Fighters To Jihadists ebook anywhere anytime directly on your device. Fast Download speed and no annoying ads. We cannot guarantee that every ebooks is available!

From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists

Author : Vera Mironova
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 019093977X
Total Pages : 248 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (99 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists by : Vera Mironova

Download or read book From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists written by Vera Mironova and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2019-05-20 with total page 248 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: At the start of the Syrian conflict in 2011, thousands of pro-democracy rebel groups spontaneously formed to fight the Assad regime. Years later, the revolution was unrecognizable as rebel opposition forces had merged into three major groups: Jabhat al-Nusra, Ahrar al Sham, and the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). Why did these three groups rapidly increase in size and military strength while others simply disappeared? What is it about their organizational structure and their Islamist ideology that helped group manage their fighters so successfully? With these questions at the forefront, this book examines the internal organization of armed groups and, in particular, their human resources. Analyzing the growth of these groups through the prism of a labor market theory, this book shows that extreme Islamist groups were able to attract fighters away from more moderate groups because they had better internal organization, took better care of fighters both physically and monetarily, experienced less internal corruption, and effectively used their Islamist ideology to control recruits. With unparalleled access and extensive ethnographic research drawn from her interviews and her year embedded with Iraqi Special Operation forces, Mironova delves deep into the ideological and practical nexus of some of the most radical groups in the Middle East. This book brings together more than 600 survey-interviews with local civilians and fighters on the frontline in Syria and a dataset of human resource policies from 40 armed groups; it is an invaluable resource for anyone who wants insight into the on the ground functioning of rebel organizations.

Causes and Consequences of Terrorism

Author : Vera Grigorʹevna Mironova
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780190939793
Total Pages : 321 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (397 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Causes and Consequences of Terrorism by : Vera Grigorʹevna Mironova

Download or read book Causes and Consequences of Terrorism written by Vera Grigorʹevna Mironova and published by . This book was released on 2019 with total page 321 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: 'From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists' examines the internal organization of armed groups, particularly their human resource practices. The author looks at the rebel armed groups through the prism of a labour market theory.

Terrorists and Freedom Fighters

Author : Sam Vaknin
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9781724185228
Total Pages : 238 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (852 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Terrorists and Freedom Fighters by : Sam Vaknin

Download or read book Terrorists and Freedom Fighters written by Sam Vaknin and published by . This book was released on 2018-09-30 with total page 238 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The history of four terrorist organizations in the Balkans and a general introduction to terrorism and freedom fighting. Also includes essays about religious co-existence in the Balkans and about pathological narcissism as a precursor to terrorism.

The Freedom Fighter

Author : Murat Haner
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 9781315102221
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (22 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The Freedom Fighter by : Murat Haner

Download or read book The Freedom Fighter written by Murat Haner and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2018 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The ability of terrorist groups to inflict death and destruction has markedly increased with technology advances in the areas of communication, transportation, and weapon capability. Using these new tools and networks, terrorists now seek to inflict mass casualties worldwide. Given these realities, it is essential to research the factors that underlie a terrorist group's origins, grievances, and demands. Such insights might help others respond more effectively to insurgencies, especially when military campaigns to capture or kill every terrorist have proven unsuccessful. The Freedom Fighter: A Terrorist's Own Story explores why so many Kurdish people--especially young adults--join the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) and conduct terrorist acts. Inspired by the ground-breaking classic, The Jack-Roller: A Delinquent Boy's Own Story, by Clifford R. Shaw, the author explores the issue of radicalization into terrorist organizations through the life-history method, enabling a PKK terrorist--or "freedom fighter"--to tell his story. Over a five-month period, the author interviewed "Deniz," a high-level PKK terrorist in a Turkish prison, who during his time in the PKK rose from the lowest level to near the top in terms of terrorist operations. This riveting life history, told in Deniz's own words, provides unique insights into why someone becomes a "freedom fighter" and what such a life entails. The account provides extensive information on the PKK, including the group's recruitment, ideological and military training, armed strategies, internal structures and code of ethics, treament of women, and goals for peace. Deniz's story not only explains why more Kurdish "freedom fighters" will be recruited to engage in terrorist acts, but also facilitates understanding of how "normal people" can become involved in conflict and organizations that are designated as "terrorist groups"--back cover.

From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists

Author : Vera Mironova
Publisher : Causes and Consequences of Ter
ISBN 13 : 0190939753
Total Pages : 345 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (99 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists by : Vera Mironova

Download or read book From Freedom Fighters to Jihadists written by Vera Mironova and published by Causes and Consequences of Ter. This book was released on 2019 with total page 345 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: At the start of the Syrian conflict in 2011, thousands of pro-democracy rebel groups spontaneously formed to fight the Assad regime. Years later, the revolution was unrecognizable as rebel opposition forces had merged into three major groups: Jabhat al-Nusra, Ahrar al Sham, and the Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS). Why did these three groups rapidly increase in size and military strength while others simply disappeared? What is it about their organizational structure and their Islamist ideology that helped group manage their fighters so successfully? With these questions at the forefront, this book examines the internal organization of armed groups and, in particular, their human resources. Analyzing the growth of these groups through the prism of a labor market theory, this book shows that extreme Islamist groups were able to attract fighters away from more moderate groups because they had better internal organization, took better care of fighters both physically and monetarily, experienced less internal corruption, and effectively used their Islamist ideology to control recruits. With unparalleled access and extensive ethnographic research drawn from her interviews and her year embedded with Iraqi Special Operation forces, Mironova delves deep into the ideological and practical nexus of some of the most radical groups in the Middle East. This book brings together more than 600 survey-interviews with local civilians and fighters on the frontline in Syria and a dataset of human resource policies from 40 armed groups; it is an invaluable resource for anyone who wants insight into the on the ground functioning of rebel organizations.

Terrorists Or Freedom Fighters?

Author : Charles Freeman
Publisher : Trafalgar Square Publishing
ISBN 13 : 9780713460766
Total Pages : 66 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (67 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Terrorists Or Freedom Fighters? by : Charles Freeman

Download or read book Terrorists Or Freedom Fighters? written by Charles Freeman and published by Trafalgar Square Publishing. This book was released on 1990 with total page 66 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Case studies of terrorism in the Middle East and Northern Ireland assess what can be done to oppose terrorism.

Road Warriors

Author : Daniel Byman
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0190646527
Total Pages : 336 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (96 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Road Warriors by : Daniel Byman

Download or read book Road Warriors written by Daniel Byman and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2019-05-02 with total page 336 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Ever since the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, fighters from abroad have journeyed in ever-greater numbers to conflict zones in the Muslim world to defend Islam from-in their view-infidels and apostates. The phenomenon recently reached its apogee in Syria, where the foreign fighter population quickly became larger and more diverse than in any previous conflict. In Road Warriors, Daniel Byman provides a sweeping history of the jihadist foreign fighter movement. He begins by chronicling the movement's birth in Afghanistan, its growing pains in Bosnia and Chechnya, and its emergence as a major source of terrorism in the West in the 1990s, culminating in the 9/11 attacks. Since that bloody day, the foreign fighter movement has seen major ups and downs. It rode high after the 2003 US invasion of Iraq, when the ultra-violent Al Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) attracted thousands of foreign fighters. AQI overreached, however, and suffered a crushing defeat. Demonstrating the resilience of the movement, however, AQI reemerged anew during the Syrian civil war as the Islamic State, attracting tens of thousands of fighters from around the world and spawning the bloody 2015 attacks in Paris among hundreds of other strikes. Although casualty rates are usually high, the survivors of Afghanistan, Syria, and other fields of jihad often became skilled professional warriors, going from one war to the next. Still others returned to their home countries, some to peaceful retirement but a deadly few to conduct terrorist attacks. Over time, both the United States and Europe have learned to adapt. Before 9/11, volunteers went to and fro to Afghanistan and other hotspots with little interference. Today, the United States and its allies have developed a global program to identify, arrest, and kill foreign fighters. Much remains to be done, however-jihadist ideas and networks are by now deeply embedded, even as groups such as Al Qaeda and the Islamic State rise and fall. And as Byman makes abundantly clear, the problem is not likely to go away any time soon.

Undercover Jihadi Bride

Author : Anna Erelle
Publisher : HarperCollins
ISBN 13 : 9780008139582
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (395 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Undercover Jihadi Bride by : Anna Erelle

Download or read book Undercover Jihadi Bride written by Anna Erelle and published by HarperCollins. This book was released on 2016-02-11 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Previously published as 'In the Skin of a Jihadist' Twenty-year-old 'Mélodie', a recent convert to Islam, meets the leader of an ISIS brigade on Facebook. In 48 hours he has 'fallen in love' with her, calls her every hour, urges her to marry him, join him in Syria in a life of paradise - and join his jihad. Anna Erelle is the undercover journalist behind 'Melodie'. Created to investigate the powerful propaganda weapons of Islamic State, 'Melodie' is soon sucked in by Bilel, right-hand man of the infamous Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi. An Iraqi for whose capture the US government has promised $10 million, al-Baghdadi is described by Time Magazine as the most dangerous man in the world and by himself as the caliph of Islamic State. Bilel shows off his jeep, his guns, his expensive watch. He boasts about the people he has just killed. With Bilel impatient for his future wife, 'Melodie' embarks on her highly dangerous mission, which - at its ultimate stage - will go very wrong ... Enticed into this lethal online world like hundreds of other young people, including many young British girls and boys, Erelle's harrowing and gripping investigation helps us to understand the true face of terrorism.

The Return of Foreign Fighters to Central Asia

Author : Thomas Lynch
Publisher : Createspace Independent Publishing Platform
ISBN 13 : 9781542915311
Total Pages : 44 pages
Book Rating : 4.9/5 (153 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The Return of Foreign Fighters to Central Asia by : Thomas Lynch

Download or read book The Return of Foreign Fighters to Central Asia written by Thomas Lynch and published by Createspace Independent Publishing Platform. This book was released on 2017-02-03 with total page 44 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Central Asia is the third largest point of origin for Salafi jihadist foreign fighters in the conflagration in Syria and Iraq, with more than 4,000 total fighters joining the conflict since 2012 and 2,500 reportedly arriving in the 2014-2015 timeframe alone. As the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) continues to lose territory under duress from U.S.-led anti-ISIL coalition activities, some predict that many may return home bent on jihad and generating terror and instability across Central Asia. Yet several factors indicate that such an ominous foreign fighter return may not materialize. Among these factors are that a majority of Central Asians fighting for ISIL and the al-Nusra Front in Syria and Iraq are recruited while working abroad in Russia, often from low-wage jobs under poor conditions making the recruits ripe for radicalization. In addition, many of those heading for jihad in Syria and the Levant expect that they are on a "one way journey," some to martyrdom but most for a completely new life, and do not plan a return. Most Central Asian states face their greatest risk of domestic instability and violent extremism as a reaction to political repression and counterterrorism (CT) policies that counterproductively conflate political opposition and the open practice of Islam with a domestic jihadist threat. If improperly calibrated, greater U.S. CT assistance to address foreign fighter returns may strengthen illiberal regime short-term focus on political power consolidation, overplay the limited risks of foreign fighter returns, and increase the risks of domestic unrest and future instability. The United States has few means to pressure Central Asian regimes into policies that address the main drivers of domestic radicalization, such as political inclusion and religious freedom. Although an imperfect instrument, U.S. security assistance-and the specific subset of CT assistance-is a significant lever. U.S. CT assistance for Central Asia should eschew additional general lethal assistance and instead scope security attention toward border security intelligence and physical capacity enhancements. This CT aid should be paired with important, complementary socioeconomic programs that help with countering violent extremism, including greater religious and political openness along with support for the Central Asian diaspora.

American Jihad

Author : Steven Emerson
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 0743477502
Total Pages : 272 pages
Book Rating : 4.7/5 (434 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis American Jihad by : Steven Emerson

Download or read book American Jihad written by Steven Emerson and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2003-02-04 with total page 272 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Leading the second wave of post 9/11 terrorist books, American Jihad reveals that America is rampant with Islamic terrorist networks and sleeper cells and Emerson, the expert on them, explains just how close they are to each of us.

Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques

Author : Carsten Bockstette
Publisher : DIANE Publishing
ISBN 13 : 1437920586
Total Pages : 28 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (379 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques by : Carsten Bockstette

Download or read book Jihadist Terrorist Use of Strategic Communication Management Techniques written by Carsten Bockstette and published by DIANE Publishing. This book was released on 2010-11 with total page 28 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Since the symmetrical-global East-West conflict was decided in favor of the West, numerous asymmetrical conflicts have erupted around the globe. Jihadist terrorism has spread beyond the borders of the regions in which it had its origin and has reached a global dimension. Research and analysis of the root causes and underlying conditions, motivators and enablers of terrorism including the agitation propaganda of jihadist terrorists are vital to shaping appropriate countermeasures to the threat from Islamic terrorism. This paper looks at the jihadist use of strategic communication management techniques. The mass media and especially the Internet have become the key enablers and the main strategic communication assets for terrorists and have ensured them a favorable communication asymmetry.

Rise of ISIS

Author : Jay Sekulow
Publisher : Simon and Schuster
ISBN 13 : 1501105132
Total Pages : 144 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (11 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Rise of ISIS by : Jay Sekulow

Download or read book Rise of ISIS written by Jay Sekulow and published by Simon and Schuster. This book was released on 2014-10-14 with total page 144 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Argues that the extremist Sunni jihadist group ISIS presents a great danger to the United States and the world, looking at the origin of the group, its objectives, and its unlawful terrorist strategies.

Digital Jihad

Author : Francesco Marone
Publisher : Ledizioni
ISBN 13 : 8855261371
Total Pages : 160 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (552 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Digital Jihad by : Francesco Marone

Download or read book Digital Jihad written by Francesco Marone and published by Ledizioni. This book was released on 2019-12-02 with total page 160 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The internet offers tremendous opportunities for violent extremists across the ideological spectrum and at a global level. In addition to propaganda, digital technologies have transformed the dynamics of radical mobilisation, recruitment and participation. Even though the jihadist threat has seemingly declined in the West, the danger exists of the internet being an environment where radical messages can survive and even prosper. Against this background, this ISPI report investigates the current landscape of jihadist online communication, including original empirical analysis. Specific attention is also placed on potential measures and initiatives to address the threat of online violent extremism. The volume aims to present important points for reflection on the phenomenon in the West (including Italy) and beyond.

Proto-State Media Systems

Author : Carol Winkler
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0197568025
Total Pages : 289 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (975 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Proto-State Media Systems by : Carol Winkler

Download or read book Proto-State Media Systems written by Carol Winkler and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2022 with total page 289 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Proto-State Media Systems explores how decisions by contemporary violent extremist groups create, develop, and sustain media systems. Focusing on the cases of al-Qaeda and ISIS, this book showcases how standard media systems theory fails to fully explain the media systems of these organizations as a basis for building a revised theoretical lens that comprehends these emergent systems in the 21st century global media context. Utilizing constitutive and online networking theories, Winkler and El Damanhoury explore how militant proto-states create lasting, adaptable, identity-based systems that work to attract and sustain the attention of followers. The groups' appeals to transhistorical and transpatial identity formations in their media products reveal new insights about community formation and how we analyze media systems in the proto-state context. Recognizing that nation-states no longer exercise monopoly control over online and offline media systems, Proto-State Media Systems investigates how certain violent extremist groups bent on establishing sustained territorial and governing control over populations have revolutionized the media environment of the 21st century.

Understanding Terror Networks

Author : Marc Sageman
Publisher : University of Pennsylvania Press
ISBN 13 : 0812206797
Total Pages : 233 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (122 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Understanding Terror Networks by : Marc Sageman

Download or read book Understanding Terror Networks written by Marc Sageman and published by University of Pennsylvania Press. This book was released on 2011-09-21 with total page 233 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: For decades, a new type of terrorism has been quietly gathering ranks in the world. America's ability to remain oblivious to these new movements ended on September 11, 2001. The Islamist fanatics in the global Salafi jihad (the violent, revivalist social movement of which al Qaeda is a part) target the West, but their operations mercilessly slaughter thousands of people of all races and religions throughout the world. Marc Sageman challenges conventional wisdom about terrorism, observing that the key to mounting an effective defense against future attacks is a thorough understanding of the networks that allow these new terrorists to proliferate. Based on intensive study of biographical data on 172 participants in the jihad, Understanding Terror Networks gives us the first social explanation of the global wave of activity. Sageman traces its roots in Egypt, gestation in Afghanistan during the Soviet-Afghan war, exile in the Sudan, and growth of branches worldwide, including detailed accounts of life within the Hamburg and Montreal cells that planned attacks on the United States. U.S. government strategies to combat the jihad are based on the traditional reasons an individual was thought to turn to terrorism: poverty, trauma, madness, and ignorance. Sageman refutes all these notions, showing that, for the vast majority of the mujahedin, social bonds predated ideological commitment, and it was these social networks that inspired alienated young Muslims to join the jihad. These men, isolated from the rest of society, were transformed into fanatics yearning for martyrdom and eager to kill. The tight bonds of family and friendship, paradoxically enhanced by the tenuous links between the cell groups (making it difficult for authorities to trace connections), contributed to the jihad movement's flexibility and longevity. And although Sageman's systematic analysis highlights the crucial role the networks played in the terrorists' success, he states unequivocally that the level of commitment and choice to embrace violence were entirely their own. Understanding Terror Networks combines Sageman's scrutiny of sources, personal acquaintance with Islamic fundamentalists, deep appreciation of history, and effective application of network theory, modeling, and forensic psychology. Sageman's unique research allows him to go beyond available academic studies, which are light on facts, and journalistic narratives, which are devoid of theory. The result is a profound contribution to our understanding of the perpetrators of 9/11 that has practical implications for the war on terror.

Western Jihadism

Author : Jytte Klausen
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0192643800
Total Pages : 368 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (926 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis Western Jihadism by : Jytte Klausen

Download or read book Western Jihadism written by Jytte Klausen and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2021-08-04 with total page 368 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book tells the story of how Al Qaeda grew in the West. In forensic and compelling detail, Jytte Klausen traces how Islamist revolutionaries exiled in Europe and North America in the 1990s helped create and control one of the world's most impactful terrorist movements - and how, after the near-obliteration of the organization during the aftermath of the 9/11 attacks, they helped build it again. She shows how the diffusion of Islamist terrorism to Europe and North America has been driven, not by local grievances of Western Muslims, but by the strategic priorities of the international Salafi-jihadist revolutionary movement. That movement has adapted to Western repertoires of protest: agitating for armed insurrection and religious revivalism in the name of a warped version of Islam. The jihadists-Al Qaeda and the Islamic State, and their many affiliates and associates- also proved to be amazingly resilient. Again and again, the movement recovered from major setbacks. Appealing to disaffected Muslims of immigrant origin and alienated converts to Islam, Jihadist groups continue to recruit new adherents in Europe and North America, street-side in neighborhoods, in jails, and online through increasingly clandestine platforms. Taking a comparative and historical approach, deploying cutting-edge analytical tools, and drawing on her unparalleled database of up to 6,500 Western jihadist extremists and their networks, Klausen has produced the most comprehensive account yet of the origins of Western jihadism and its role in the global movement.

The De-Radicalization of Jihadists

Author : Omar Ashour
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1134012284
Total Pages : 224 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (34 download)

DOWNLOAD NOW!

Book Synopsis The De-Radicalization of Jihadists by : Omar Ashour

Download or read book The De-Radicalization of Jihadists written by Omar Ashour and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2009-04-07 with total page 224 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book is the first detailed study of the causes of de-radicalization in armed Islamist movements. It is based on frontline research that includes interviews with Jihadist leaders, mid-ranking commanders, and young sympathizers, as well as former security and intelligence officers and state officials. Additionally, it is also the first book to analyze the particular conditions under which successful de-radicalization can take place. The current literature on Islamist movements attempts to explain two principal issues: their support of violence (radicalization) and their changing attitudes towards democracy and democratization (moderation). However, the reasons behind renouncing (behavioural de-radicalization) and de-legitimizing (ideological de-radicalization) violence have not been evaluated to date. The author provides an in-depth analysis of the de-radicalization processes of the Egyptian Muslim Brothers (1951-73), former allies of al-Qa'ida, such as al-Gama'a al-Islammiyya (Islamic Group of Egypt, 1997-2002) and al-Jihad Organization (2007- present), as well as of Algerian Islamist groups (1997-2000). The book also analyzes cases of de-radicalization failure. The two questions that the book highlights and attempts to answer are Why? and How? For example, why do radical Islamist militants revise their ideologies, strategies and objectives and initiate a de-radicalization process; and what are the necessary conditions behind successful de-radicalization? De-radicalization of Jihadists shows how a combination of charismatic leadership, state repression, social interactions and selective inducements can ultimately lead jihadists to abandon 'jihad' and de-legitimize violence. This book will be of great interest to students of radical Islamist movements and Islamic Studies, terrorism and political violence, security studies, and Middle Eastern politics. Omar Ashour is a Lecturer in Politics in the Institute of Arab and Islamic Studies, University of Exeter. He has a PhD in International Relations from McGill University in Canada.