Evolution Of Peoples Thought Against All Kinds Of Oppression

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EVOLUTION OF PEOPLE'S THOUGHT AGAINST ALL KINDS OF OPPRESSION

Author : JAVIER CLEMENTE ENGONGA AVOMO
Publisher : DelRei
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 84 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis EVOLUTION OF PEOPLE'S THOUGHT AGAINST ALL KINDS OF OPPRESSION by : JAVIER CLEMENTE ENGONGA AVOMO

Download or read book EVOLUTION OF PEOPLE'S THOUGHT AGAINST ALL KINDS OF OPPRESSION written by JAVIER CLEMENTE ENGONGA AVOMO and published by DelRei . This book was released on with total page 84 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: As in other times, in other times and in many places and moments in history, talking about Freedom has always been a matter of concern for those who oppress, because to oppress is to disturb the individual and collective freedoms of others, of innocent peoples. The oppressed is never guilty but is always the victim of the oppressor, which is generally a whole system personified in the figure of an oppressive tyrant or an oppressive tyrannical group. And so many peoples throughout the history of humanity have undergone that long learning of forced submission to a system that destroys them and prevents them from being free, and always, in all ages, peoples have decided their own destinies. . From the American Revolution that led to the Civil War that provided a new outlook for the Western world and a powerful new nation, to Mao's Red Revolution that began with the uprisings of student groups in Xiangtan, Hunan Province and spread throughout the country mobilizing the masses to fight and end the national division, the dying empire of the Qing dynasty and its last emperor PuYi, as well as the fight against the Chinese secessionists in that case, the Guo Ming Tang, who they ended up exiled to Taiwan until today and, above all, the struggle and triumph against the Japanese invasion. The revolution is not a chance event, nor can its emergence be prevented, since it is the result of events in the history of each nation. Oppressors can always kill, murder, imprison, shoot, lie and cheat, manipulate and destroy, buy and bribe, because that has been their role throughout history, ... their archetype, rather; but they can never prevent or impede revolution. At most, they can delay it, nothing more. The most maliciously intelligent, like the Romans already in the second millennium, adopted the revolution of the Jewish insurgents and took possession of it and built on it the survival and extension of their empire, turning it into the Holy Roman Empire as they were called. But when all the parties do not join the People and their revolution, then they easily end up in the chair of the accused and judged by their peoples and history. The socialist, nationalist, or communist terms with which the popular revolution or revolution of the peoples are identified are only labels associated with specific systems of government. The true revolution is neither socialist nor capitalist but belongs to the people; It is a natural mechanism of peoples throughout their history to return to the natural order of things, to freedom and respect for the rights of people and social justice. When societies lose their sense of freedom, law and social justice, then the Revolution always springs up as a consequential and natural effect. The incessant search for freedom of the peoples, and the desire for emancipation over the lower powers that submit their destinies, has always led peoples throughout history to demonstrate in search of a forceful advance, a transcendental change, to which It has always been called Revolution, meaning a process of return to evolution, to programmed continuity. To evolve is to go forward, and a Revolution entails the return or return to the correct and desired direction or direction of things. That is why good revolutions have always triumphed, for that is how youth revolutions are. Young people are by nature lovers of change, and although they adapt to everything they also adopt their own way of doing things and seeing the world. Throughout contemporary history, youths have literally managed to move mountains. There is no successful revolution in history, from the French Revolution to the Industrial Revolution, or much later the socialist revolutions in the East and the West; or more specifically in Africa, the independence revolutions that culminated in the creation and independence of most of the countries that we recognize today in Africa; all of them had the energies and the din of the young people. The famous and courageous members of the Black Panther Party in the United States were seventeen to twenty-two-year-old youths, warriors who shook the pillars of racism in American society, the most historic, political, and overtly racist modern society. And the greatest, the greatest revolutionaries are, in truth, the eyes and the brain of every revolution. The Total Revolution to which the peoples of the world aspire is not a transcendental or apocalyptic event, but a sudden change of universal consciousness about certain truths of our reality that are also universal. The truth that injustices and crimes, abuses and impunity cannot create anything positive in any society is the creed of a revolutionary. The truth that fear cannot prevail over the day-to-day opportunity to change, to challenge, to triumph, is the hymn of a revolutionary. These are the Foundations of the Revolutionary Consciousness, and the Evolution of the Thought of the People - of the popular classes - against all kinds of Oppression. Beijing, China. 26.06.2021 Javier Clemente Engonga,

The Psychology of Oppression

Author : E.J.R. David, PhD
Publisher : Springer Publishing Company
ISBN 13 : 0826178170
Total Pages : 218 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (261 download)

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Book Synopsis The Psychology of Oppression by : E.J.R. David, PhD

Download or read book The Psychology of Oppression written by E.J.R. David, PhD and published by Springer Publishing Company. This book was released on 2017-10-28 with total page 218 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Written in an engaging and relatable manner, this book reviews the psychological theories and research on the topic of oppression – its evolution, its various forms, and its consequences. Painful historical examples and modern-day occurrences of oppression including mass incarceration, LGBT and transgender issues, police brutality, immigration reform, anti-Muslim sentiments, and systemic racism are explored. How oppression exists and operates on various levels, the mental and behavioral health consequences of oppression, and promising clinical and community programs to eradicate oppression are reviewed. The authors hope that by providing readers with a basic understanding of oppression it will motivate them to combat bias to create a more just, harmonious, and healthy world. Highlights include: Introduces readers to the psychological theories and research on oppression whereas most other books focus on a sociological or ethnic studies perspective. Introduces readers to the fundamentals of oppression--what it is, who experiences it, and where and when it has taken place. Dissects the layers of oppression -- how it is expressed blatantly or subtly and overtly or covertly. Explores how oppression is manifested on different levels including interpersonal, institutional/systemic, and internalized, for a deeper understanding. Demonstrates how oppression influences peoples’ thoughts, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors, and how it influences peoples’ well-being and health. Explores why certain people are discriminated against simply because of their race, ethnicity, gender, or sexuality and the resulting psychological implications. Highlights what researchers and service providers are doing to address oppression via encouraging community and clinical interventions. Examines why oppression exists and has persisted throughout history and what it looks like today. Recommends future psychological work on oppression across research, clinical, and community contexts. Ideal as a text in upper level undergraduate and beginning graduate courses on oppression, prejudice and discrimination, race relations, ethnic studies, ethnic and racial minorities, multicultural or cross-cultural psychology, multicultural counseling, diversity, women’s studies, LGBT studies, disability studies, and social justice taught in psychology, social work, and counseling. Behavioral and mental health providers in both clinical and community contexts will also appreciate this book.

Pedagogy of the Oppressed

Author : Paulo Freire
Publisher :
ISBN 13 : 9780140225839
Total Pages : 153 pages
Book Rating : 4.2/5 (258 download)

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Book Synopsis Pedagogy of the Oppressed by : Paulo Freire

Download or read book Pedagogy of the Oppressed written by Paulo Freire and published by . This book was released on 1972 with total page 153 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

Embracing Hopelessness

Author : Miguel A. De La Torre
Publisher : Fortress Press
ISBN 13 : 1506433421
Total Pages : 191 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (64 download)

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Book Synopsis Embracing Hopelessness by : Miguel A. De La Torre

Download or read book Embracing Hopelessness written by Miguel A. De La Torre and published by Fortress Press. This book was released on 2017-10-01 with total page 191 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This book will attempt to explore faith-based responses to unending injustices by embracing the reality of hopelessness. It rejects the pontifications of some salvation history that move the faithful toward an eschatological promise that, when looking back at history, makes sense of all Christian-led brutalities, mayhem, and carnage. To embrace hopelessness moves away from a middle-class privilege that assumes all is going to work out in the end. By upsetting the norm, an opportunity might arise that can lead us to a more just situation, although such acts of defiance usually lead to crucifixion. Hopelessness is what leads to radical liberative praxis.

Algorithms of Oppression

Author : Safiya Umoja Noble
Publisher : NYU Press
ISBN 13 : 1479837245
Total Pages : 245 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (798 download)

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Book Synopsis Algorithms of Oppression by : Safiya Umoja Noble

Download or read book Algorithms of Oppression written by Safiya Umoja Noble and published by NYU Press. This book was released on 2018-02-20 with total page 245 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Acknowledgments -- Introduction: the power of algorithms -- A society, searching -- Searching for Black girls -- Searching for people and communities -- Searching for protections from search engines -- The future of knowledge in the public -- The future of information culture -- Conclusion: algorithms of oppression -- Epilogue -- Notes -- Bibliography -- Index -- About the author

Analyzing Oppression

Author : Ann E. Cudd
Publisher : Oxford University Press
ISBN 13 : 0195187431
Total Pages : 293 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (951 download)

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Book Synopsis Analyzing Oppression by : Ann E. Cudd

Download or read book Analyzing Oppression written by Ann E. Cudd and published by Oxford University Press. This book was released on 2006 with total page 293 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Analyzing Oppression presents a new, integrated theory of social oppression, which tackles the fundamental question that no theory of oppression has satisfactorily answered: if there is no natural hierarchy among humans, why are some cases of oppression so persistent? Cudd argues that the explanation lies in the coercive co-opting of the oppressed to join in their own oppression. This answer sets the stage for analysis throughout the book, as it explores the questions of how and why the oppressed join in their oppression. Cudd argues that oppression is an institutionally structured harm perpetrated on social groups by other groups using direct and indirect material, economic, and psychological force. Among the most important and insidious of the indirect forces is an economic force that operates through oppressed persons' own rational choices. This force constitutes the central feature of analysis, and the book argues that this force is especially insidious because it conceals the fact of oppression from the oppressed and from others who would be sympathetic to their plight. The oppressed come to believe that they suffer personal failings and this belief appears to absolve society from responsibility. While on Cudd's view oppression is grounded in material exploitation and physical deprivation, it cannot be long sustained without corresponding psychological forces. Cudd examines the direct and indirect psychological forces that generate and sustain oppression. She discusses strategies that groups have used to resist oppression and argues that all persons have a moral responsibility to resist in some way. In the concluding chapter Cudd proposes a concept of freedom that would be possible for humans in a world that is actively opposing oppression, arguing that freedom for each individual is only possible when we achieve freedom for all others.

Diversity, Social Justice, and Inclusive Excellence

Author : Seth N. Asumah
Publisher : State University of New York Press
ISBN 13 : 1438451644
Total Pages : 470 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (384 download)

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Book Synopsis Diversity, Social Justice, and Inclusive Excellence by : Seth N. Asumah

Download or read book Diversity, Social Justice, and Inclusive Excellence written by Seth N. Asumah and published by State University of New York Press. This book was released on 2014-05-19 with total page 470 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Winner of the 2016 NYASA Book Award presented by the New York African Studies Association When students are introduced to the study of diversity and social justice, it is usually from sociological and psychological perspectives. The scholars and activists featured in this anthology reject this approach as too limiting, insisting that we adopt a view that is both transdisciplinary and multiperspectival. Their essays focus on the components of diversity, social justice, and inclusive excellence, not just within the United States but in other parts of the world. They examine diversity in the contexts of culture, race, class, gender, learned ability and dis/ability, religion, sexual orientation, and citizenship, and explore how these concepts and identities interrelate. The result is a book that will provide readers with a better theoretical understanding of diversity studies and will enable them to see and think critically about oppression and how systems of oppression may be challenged.

Internalized Oppression

Author : E.J.R. David, PhD
Publisher : Springer Publishing Company
ISBN 13 : 0826199267
Total Pages : 328 pages
Book Rating : 4.8/5 (261 download)

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Book Synopsis Internalized Oppression by : E.J.R. David, PhD

Download or read book Internalized Oppression written by E.J.R. David, PhD and published by Springer Publishing Company. This book was released on 2013-12-09 with total page 328 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ìIt is a great honorÖto write the foreword to such an important book edited by E.J.R. David, filled with contributions from leading and emerging psychological scholars on internalized oppression. One of the best features of the book, in my opinion, is that the chapter authorsÖare allowed to share their own personal experiences and that such experiences are regarded to be just as valid and legitimate as the ëtheoriesí and ëempirical studiesí that they review.î -Eduardo Duran, PhD 7th Direction Therapy, Assessment, and Consulting Author of Healing the Soul Wound and Co-Author of Native American Postcolonial Psychology The oppression of various groups has taken place throughout human history. People are stereotyped, discriminated against, and treated unjustly simply because of their social group membership. But what does it look like when the oppression that people face from the outside gets under their skin? Long overdue, this is the first book to highlight the universality of internalized oppression across marginalized groups in the United States from a mental health perspective. It focuses on the psychological manifestations and mental health implications of internalized oppression for a variety of groups. The book provides insight into the ways in which internalized oppression influences the thoughts, attitudes, feelings, and behaviors of the oppressed toward themselves, other members of their group, and members of the dominant group. It also considers promising clinical and community programs that are currently addressing internalized oppression among specific groups. The book describes the implications and unique manifestations of internalized oppression among African Americans, Latinos, Asian Americans, Pacific Islanders, American Indians and Alaska natives, women, people with disabilities, and the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender community. For each group, the text considers its demographic profile, history of oppression, contemporary oppression, common manifestations and mental and behavioral health implications, clinical and community programs, and future directions. Chapters are written by leading and emerging scholars, who share their personal experiences to provide a real-world point of view. Additionally, each chapter is coauthored by a member of a particular community group, who helps to bring academic concepts to life. Key Features: Addresses the universality of internalized oppression across marginalized groups in the U.S. and its corresponding mental health and psychological manifestations Considers how specific groups exhibit internalized oppression in their own unique ways Provides insight into how internalized oppression influences the thoughts, feelings, attitudes, and behaviors of the oppressed Highlights promising clinical and community programs

Black Feminist Thought

Author : Patricia Hill Collins
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1135960135
Total Pages : 353 pages
Book Rating : 4.1/5 (359 download)

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Book Synopsis Black Feminist Thought by : Patricia Hill Collins

Download or read book Black Feminist Thought written by Patricia Hill Collins and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2002-06-01 with total page 353 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In spite of the double burden of racial and gender discrimination, African-American women have developed a rich intellectual tradition that is not widely known. In Black Feminist Thought, Patricia Hill Collins explores the words and ideas of Black feminist intellectuals as well as those African-American women outside academe. She provides an interpretive framework for the work of such prominent Black feminist thinkers as Angela Davis, bell hooks, Alice Walker, and Audre Lorde. The result is a superbly crafted book that provides the first synthetic overview of Black feminist thought.

Mindstorms

Author : Seymour A Papert
Publisher : Basic Books
ISBN 13 : 154167510X
Total Pages : 256 pages
Book Rating : 4.5/5 (416 download)

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Book Synopsis Mindstorms by : Seymour A Papert

Download or read book Mindstorms written by Seymour A Papert and published by Basic Books. This book was released on 2020-10-06 with total page 256 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: In this revolutionary book, a renowned computer scientist explains the importance of teaching children the basics of computing and how it can prepare them to succeed in the ever-evolving tech world. Computers have completely changed the way we teach children. We have Mindstorms to thank for that. In this book, pioneering computer scientist Seymour Papert uses the invention of LOGO, the first child-friendly programming language, to make the case for the value of teaching children with computers. Papert argues that children are more than capable of mastering computers, and that teaching computational processes like de-bugging in the classroom can change the way we learn everything else. He also shows that schools saturated with technology can actually improve socialization and interaction among students and between students and teachers. Technology changes every day, but the basic ways that computers can help us learn remain. For thousands of teachers and parents who have sought creative ways to help children learn with computers, Mindstorms is their bible.

Letter from Birmingham Jail

Author : Martin Luther King
Publisher : HarperOne
ISBN 13 : 9780063425811
Total Pages : 0 pages
Book Rating : 4.4/5 (258 download)

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Book Synopsis Letter from Birmingham Jail by : Martin Luther King

Download or read book Letter from Birmingham Jail written by Martin Luther King and published by HarperOne. This book was released on 2025-01-14 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: A beautiful commemorative edition of Dr. Martin Luther King's essay "Letter from Birmingham Jail," part of Dr. King's archives published exclusively by HarperCollins. With an afterword by Reginald Dwayne Betts On April 16, 1923, Dr. Martin Luther King Jr., responded to an open letter written and published by eight white clergyman admonishing the civil rights demonstrations happening in Birmingham, Alabama. Dr. King drafted his seminal response on scraps of paper smuggled into jail. King criticizes his detractors for caring more about order than justice, defends nonviolent protests, and argues for the moral responsibility to obey just laws while disobeying unjust ones. "Letter from Birmingham Jail" proclaims a message - confronting any injustice is an acceptable and righteous reason for civil disobedience. This beautifully designed edition presents Dr. King's speech in its entirety, paying tribute to this extraordinary leader and his immeasurable contribution, and inspiring a new generation of activists dedicated to carrying on the fight for justice and equality.

Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England

Author :
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 768 pages
Book Rating : 4.:/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England by :

Download or read book Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England written by and published by . This book was released on 1812 with total page 768 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Includes information from the Norman conquest through the 1st session of the 2d Parliament.

Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders

Author : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine
Publisher : National Academies Press
ISBN 13 : 0309439124
Total Pages : 171 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (94 download)

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Book Synopsis Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders by : National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine

Download or read book Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders written by National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine and published by National Academies Press. This book was released on 2016-09-03 with total page 171 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Estimates indicate that as many as 1 in 4 Americans will experience a mental health problem or will misuse alcohol or drugs in their lifetimes. These disorders are among the most highly stigmatized health conditions in the United States, and they remain barriers to full participation in society in areas as basic as education, housing, and employment. Improving the lives of people with mental health and substance abuse disorders has been a priority in the United States for more than 50 years. The Community Mental Health Act of 1963 is considered a major turning point in America's efforts to improve behavioral healthcare. It ushered in an era of optimism and hope and laid the groundwork for the consumer movement and new models of recovery. The consumer movement gave voice to people with mental and substance use disorders and brought their perspectives and experience into national discussions about mental health. However over the same 50-year period, positive change in American public attitudes and beliefs about mental and substance use disorders has lagged behind these advances. Stigma is a complex social phenomenon based on a relationship between an attribute and a stereotype that assigns undesirable labels, qualities, and behaviors to a person with that attribute. Labeled individuals are then socially devalued, which leads to inequality and discrimination. This report contributes to national efforts to understand and change attitudes, beliefs and behaviors that can lead to stigma and discrimination. Changing stigma in a lasting way will require coordinated efforts, which are based on the best possible evidence, supported at the national level with multiyear funding, and planned and implemented by an effective coalition of representative stakeholders. Ending Discrimination Against People with Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Evidence for Stigma Change explores stigma and discrimination faced by individuals with mental or substance use disorders and recommends effective strategies for reducing stigma and encouraging people to seek treatment and other supportive services. It offers a set of conclusions and recommendations about successful stigma change strategies and the research needed to inform and evaluate these efforts in the United States.

Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England

Author : Great Britain. Parliament
Publisher :
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 774 pages
Book Rating : 4.0/5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England by : Great Britain. Parliament

Download or read book Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England written by Great Britain. Parliament and published by . This book was released on 1812 with total page 774 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

God of the Oppressed

Author : James H. Cone
Publisher : Orbis Books
ISBN 13 : 1608330389
Total Pages : 351 pages
Book Rating : 4.6/5 (83 download)

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Book Synopsis God of the Oppressed by : James H. Cone

Download or read book God of the Oppressed written by James H. Cone and published by Orbis Books. This book was released on 1997 with total page 351 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:

The Role of Religion in History

Author : George Walsh
Publisher : Routledge
ISBN 13 : 1351474847
Total Pages : 171 pages
Book Rating : 4.3/5 (514 download)

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Book Synopsis The Role of Religion in History by : George Walsh

Download or read book The Role of Religion in History written by George Walsh and published by Routledge. This book was released on 2017-09-08 with total page 171 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: This comprehensive survey of religion and its profound effects on history provides a historical context for in-depth analysis of theological, social, and political themes in which religion plays a major role. George Walsh first traces the rise and impact of primitive religions. He looks at Indian traditions, including Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism and analyzes the Semitic tradition of Judaism and Christianity and the evolving conception of a personal God. He discusses the history and chief doctrines of Islam as well, with its fundamental respect for desert tribal values and its emphasis on both the authority of God and the brotherhood of believers. Walsh then compares Judaism and Christianity. He sees Judaism as marked by a profound ambivalence between the values of tribal, nomadic desert life and the values of urban civilization, individualism, and collectivism. Judaism is "this-worldly," but the Christian worldview is "other-wordly." Walsh closes with a timely discussion of the ethical, political, and economic teachings of the Judeo-Christian tradition, focusing specifically on their differing attitudes toward sex, reproduction, and marriage; their basic views of mind and body; and man's relation to God.

The History of Thoughts in Wei, Jin , Southern and Northern Dynasty

Author : Li Shi
Publisher : DeepLogic
ISBN 13 :
Total Pages : 182 pages
Book Rating : 4./5 ( download)

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Book Synopsis The History of Thoughts in Wei, Jin , Southern and Northern Dynasty by : Li Shi

Download or read book The History of Thoughts in Wei, Jin , Southern and Northern Dynasty written by Li Shi and published by DeepLogic. This book was released on with total page 182 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The book is the volume of “The History of Thoughts in Wei, Jin , Southern and Northern Dynasty” among a series of books of “Deep into China Histories”. The earliest known written records of the history of China date from as early as 1250 BC, from the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1046 BC) and the Bamboo Annals (296 BC) describe a Xia dynasty (c. 2070–1600 BC) before the Shang, but no writing is known from the period The Shang ruled in the Yellow River valley, which is commonly held to be the cradle of Chinese civilization. However, Neolithic civilizations originated at various cultural centers along both the Yellow River and Yangtze River. These Yellow River and Yangtze civilizations arose millennia before the Shang. With thousands of years of continuous history, China is one of the world's oldest civilizations, and is regarded as one of the cradles of civilization.The Zhou dynasty (1046–256 BC) supplanted the Shang and introduced the concept of the Mandate of Heaven to justify their rule. The central Zhou government began to weaken due to external and internal pressures in the 8th century BC, and the country eventually splintered into smaller states during the Spring and Autumn period. These states became independent and warred with one another in the following Warring States period. Much of traditional Chinese culture, literature and philosophy first developed during those troubled times.In 221 BC Qin Shi Huang conquered the various warring states and created for himself the title of Huangdi or "emperor" of the Qin, marking the beginning of imperial China. However, the oppressive government fell soon after his death, and was supplanted by the longer-lived Han dynasty (206 BC – 220 AD). Successive dynasties developed bureaucratic systems that enabled the emperor to control vast territories directly. In the 21 centuries from 206 BC until AD 1912, routine administrative tasks were handled by a special elite of scholar-officials. Young men, well-versed in calligraphy, history, literature, and philosophy, were carefully selected through difficult government examinations. China's last dynasty was the Qing (1644–1912), which was replaced by the Republic of China in 1912, and in the mainland by the People's Republic of China in 1949.Chinese history has alternated between periods of political unity and peace, and periods of war and failed statehood – the most recent being the Chinese Civil War (1927–1949). China was occasionally dominated by steppe peoples, most of whom were eventually assimilated into the Han Chinese culture and population. Between eras of multiple kingdoms and warlordism, Chinese dynasties have ruled parts or all of China; in some eras control stretched as far as Xinjiang and Tibet, as at present. Traditional culture, and influences from other parts of Asia and the Western world (carried by waves of immigration, cultural assimilation, expansion, and foreign contact), form the basis of the modern culture of China.