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Effects Of Participant Engagement On Alcohol Expectancies And Drinking Outcomes For A Computerized Expectancy Challenge Intervention
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Book Synopsis Effects of Participant Engagement on Alcohol Expectancies and Drinking Outcomes for a Computerized Expectancy Challenge Intervention by : William Michael Hunt
Download or read book Effects of Participant Engagement on Alcohol Expectancies and Drinking Outcomes for a Computerized Expectancy Challenge Intervention written by William Michael Hunt and published by . This book was released on 2004 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Results indicated that while high-level engagement participants reported being more engaged in their interventions, none of the groups exhibited changes in the alcohol expectancies measured. In addition, all three groups experienced significant but comparable decreases in drinking levels. Exploratory follow-up analyses were also conducted to provide suggestions for future directions.
Book Synopsis Dissertation Abstracts International by :
Download or read book Dissertation Abstracts International written by and published by . This book was released on 2005 with total page 860 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Cognition and Addiction by : Marcus Munafò
Download or read book Cognition and Addiction written by Marcus Munafò and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 330 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: It is only recently that the cognitive aspects of addictive behaviors have begun to be investigated by experimental psychologists and neuroscientists. This is the first book to investigate the complex inter-play of cognitive mechanisms that subserve subjective experiences associated with addiction, such as drug craving, as well as relapse.
Book Synopsis Changes in Likely Activation Patterns of Alcohol Expectancies After Exposure to the Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) by : Jessica N. Flori
Download or read book Changes in Likely Activation Patterns of Alcohol Expectancies After Exposure to the Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) written by Jessica N. Flori and published by . This book was released on 2020 with total page 88 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol is the most commonly used substance by adolescents in the United States with underage alcohol use being associated with a variety of harms. The Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) is a 45-minute interactive expectancy challenge intervention that has been found to be effective in reducing alcohol use. Although ECALC is thought to produce reductions in drinking by changing expectancies, the nature of these expectancy changes has yet to be explored. The purpose of the present study was to link ECALC outcome studies with a memory model approach to understanding the mechanism by which expectancies influence behavior. Participants (n =131) were college students who reported one binge drinking episode in the past month. Students were randomly assigned to receive ECALC or an alcohol education presentation. Alcohol expectancies were assessed before and after the presentation with a Memory Model-Based Expectancy Questionnaire (MMBEQ) and the Comprehensive Effectiveness of Alcohol Scale (CEOA). Participants were grouped based on experimental condition, time, and sex. Expectancies were mapped into memory network format using Individual Differences Scaling (INDSCAL), and consistent with previous studies, a two dimension solution was optimal (stress = .28, R2 = .81 MMBEQ; stress = .272, R2 = .683 CEOA; stress = .228, R2 = .806 combined analyses). PREFMAP vectors modeling paths of likely expectancy activation suggested a greater likelihood of activating negative and sedating expectancies after completion of the ECALC program. This has been the first study to connect effects of the ECALC to the memory model approach to understanding how expectancies influence drinking behavior. Duration of effects of ECALC have yet to be established, but developing methods to enhance and maintain ECALC effects on expectancy activation patterns is likely to promote lasting reductions in drinking and associated harms.
Book Synopsis A New Expectancy-challenge Prevention Program by : Alexis D. Kulick
Download or read book A New Expectancy-challenge Prevention Program written by Alexis D. Kulick and published by . This book was released on 2001 with total page 308 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Evaluation of an Expectancy Challenge Presentation in Reducing High-risk Alcohol Use Among Greek Affiliated College Students by : Abigail Fried
Download or read book Evaluation of an Expectancy Challenge Presentation in Reducing High-risk Alcohol Use Among Greek Affiliated College Students written by Abigail Fried and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 55 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol consumption and on college campuses has long been a significant problem. The severity of the situation and lack of effective alcohol programming on college campuses warranted the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to commission a Task Force on College Drinking in 2002, which has been vital in revealing drinking patterns and negative consequences which are specific to the college environment. The Task Force proposed three strategies that were empirically validated for prevention and intervention in the college setting. Of the three recommendations, implementing cognitive behavioral skills training and offering motivational enhancement interventions, while proven effective are costly and time consuming to implement. The final strategy recommended, challenging alcohol expectancies, has been validated for use in a group setting making it a more viable option for reaching larger audiences. Within the college environment there are certain factors that have shown to be important in influencing college students' drinking behaviors, attitudes toward drinking, and alcohol related negative consequences. Specifically, membership in a fraternity or sorority has revealed a unique predictor of risky drinking behavior and an increased risk of suffering from negative consequences related to alcohol. The purpose of the present study was to implement an expectancy-based presentation in Greek chapter houses to alter expectancies and decrease risky drinking behavior. Alcohol expectancies were measured before and immediately after the presentation. Alcohol consumption was also assessed in a self-report measure of drinking for the 30 days prior to the presentation as well as 30 days following it. Analyses revealed significant reductions in positive alcohol expectancies and alcohol consumption on measures of quantity (average drinks per sitting), frequency (average drinking days per week), and heavy episodic drinking (average weekly peak blood alcohol content). Therefore, the structure and effectiveness of the current intervention program proves extremely useful and practical for widespread implementation in Greek chapter houses across all college campuses.
Book Synopsis Priming Expectancies by : Ty Brumback
Download or read book Priming Expectancies written by Ty Brumback and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ABSTRACT: Investigations of the anticipated effects of alcohol indicate that cognitive frameworks are highly correlated with drinking and other variables associated with alcohol use, explaining up to 50% of the variance in drinking outcomes (Goldman, Darkes, & Del Boca, 1999; Goldman, 2002; Goldman et al., 2006; Goldman, Reich, & Darkes, 2006). Furthermore, alcohol expectancies appear to mediate the relationship between a variety of risk factors, such as sensation seeking, and alcohol outcomes (Darkes, Greenbaum, & Goldman, 2004). The current study examined the relationship of these cognitive networks with a physiological index of expectancy violation Participants were presented with statements reflecting a wide range of alcohol outcome effects, which either violated or confirmed the participant's own set of alcohol expectancies, while the ERPs evoked by these stimuli were recorded. As predicted, the P300 amplitude elicited by negative alcohol expectancy stimuli was positively correlated with the degree of endorsement of positive/arousing expectancies on the self-report measure. That is, the higher the individual's positive/arousing expectancies, the larger the P300 elicited by stimuli asserting the negative effects of alcohol. There was no significant correlation, however, between P300 amplitude elicited by positive alcohol expectancy vi stimuli and the degree of endorsement of negative/sedating expectancies on the selfreport measure. In addition, individual differences relating to alcohol expectancies were examined as well. These results were able to identify specific stimuli that violated expectancies for each individual, as well as those that tended to violate expectancies in systematic ways across subjects. These findings provide a way forward for more precise assessment and prediction based on the well developed cognitive model of Alcohol Expectancies. In sum, variations in the amplitude of the P300 were consistent with the model of Alcohol Expectancies. Words imputing negative/sedating effects of alcohol elicited a large P300 in individuals with higher positive alcohol expectancies. By indexing the brain's electrophysiological response sensitive to expectancy violations, these findings demonstrate concordance between verbal measures of alcohol expectancies, which by their very nature are introspective, and a psychophysiological index of expectancy thought to operate automatically and to be independent of overt responding.
Book Synopsis Examining the Relationship Between Alcohol Expectancies and Behavioral Economic Theory by : Tatiana Danielle Magri
Download or read book Examining the Relationship Between Alcohol Expectancies and Behavioral Economic Theory written by Tatiana Danielle Magri and published by . This book was released on 2022 with total page 0 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: PURPOSE: Alcohol consumption and related problems are common among college students. Prior research links behavioral economic constructs of alcohol demand (relative valuation of alcohol; analyzed using area under the curve) and relative reinforcement (RR; proportionate reinforcement obtained from alcohol-related activities relative to other activities), as well as alcohol expectancies, with alcohol consumption and problems. However, research has yet to examine the associations between behavioral economic and expectancy theories or how they influence alcohol use outcomes. METHOD: College students who endorsed drinking in the past 30 days (n= 287) completed an online survey assessing demand, RR, alcohol expectancies, alcohol problems, and alcohol use. A test of indirect effects examined the impact of alcohol expectancies and alcohol use on the association between demand and alcohol problems, as well as the association between RR and alcohol problems. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The final model showed adequate fit. There were significant positive associations between demand, RR, and alcohol problems. Higher demand and RR were associated with stronger alcohol expectancies, which partially mediated the association between demand and RR and alcohol problems. Findings suggest that demand and RR may be directly related to alcohol expectancies; a relationship that has not been previously identified. Moreover, alcohol expectancies may serve as the functional mechanism linking demand and RR to alcohol problems. Thus, alcohol expectancies may be an important intervention target for reducing alcohol problems. Future intervention research is needed to evaluate if changes in expectancies attenuate the association between demand and RR to alcohol problems.
Book Synopsis The Effects of an Explicit Alcohol Expectancy Challenge on Drinking Behavior and Positive Outcome Expectancies by : William Robert Corbin
Download or read book The Effects of an Explicit Alcohol Expectancy Challenge on Drinking Behavior and Positive Outcome Expectancies written by William Robert Corbin and published by . This book was released on 1997 with total page 202 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt:
Book Synopsis Alcohol Expectancy Cognitions by : Inna Fishman
Download or read book Alcohol Expectancy Cognitions written by Inna Fishman and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: ABSTRACT: Considerable evidence indicates that the expectations individuals hold about the effects of alcohol determine, to a degree, the amount of alcohol they drink. However, the bulk of this evidence was acquired using verbally-based measures of expectancy. The present study sought to extend the validation network by utilizing an electrophysiological measure -- the P300 component of the Event Related Potentials (ERPs) -- which is thought to index fundamental neurophysiological processes sensitive to expectancy. Previous research has demonstrated that, when presented with various outcomes of alcohol consumption, heavier drinkers endorse statements that assert positive and arousing effects of alcohol, while lighter drinkers endorse sedating and negative effects of alcohol. Given the sensitivity of the P300 to violation of subjective expectancies, it was hypothesized that P300 amplitude elicited by stimuli violating one's alcohol expectancies (e.g., statements describing sedating effects of alcohol for individuals with high positive expectancies) would be correlated with the participants' alcohol expectancies measured by traditional self-report measures. Participants were presented with statements reflecting a wide range of alcohol outcome effects, which either violated or confirmed the participant's own set of alcohol expectancies, while the ERPs evoked by these stimuli were recorded. As predicted, the P300 amplitude elicited by negative alcohol expectancy stimuli was positively correlated with the degree of endorsement of positive/arousing expectancies on the self-report measure. That is, the higher the individual's positive/arousing expectancies, the larger the P300 elicited by stimuli asserting the negative effects of alcohol. There was no significant correlation, however, between P300 amplitude elicited by positive alcohol expectancy stimuli and the degree of endorsement of negative/sedating expectancies on the self-report measure. In sum, variations in the amplitude of the P300 were consistent with the model of Alcohol Expectancies: Namely, words imputing negative/sedating effects of alcohol elicited a large P300 in individuals with high but not low positive alcohol expectancies. By indexing the brain's electrophysiological response sensitive to expectancy violations, these findings demonstrate concordance between verbal measures of alcohol expectancies, which by their very nature are introspective, and a psychophysiological index of expectancy thought to operate automatically and to be independent of overt responding.
Book Synopsis Evaluation of the Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) for Reducing Alcohol Use Among High School Students by : Janani Sivasithamparam
Download or read book Evaluation of the Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) for Reducing Alcohol Use Among High School Students written by Janani Sivasithamparam and published by . This book was released on 2011 with total page 231 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol use is the single most alarming behavior among youth in the United States. Adolescents especially are at risk for increases in heavy episodic drinking and drunkenness leading to alcohol-related problems such as academic failure, interpersonal violence, risky sexual behavior and death. In an effort to address this endemic issue, a number of alcohol use prevention programs have been developed and are currently implemented in the high school setting. Many of these programs, however, lack an empirical basis and have been unable to demonstrate significant reductions in alcohol use over time. The need for the development and dissemination of effective strategies to address adolescent drinking is evident. Recommendations for newly developing approaches encourage an emphasis on empirically-based content and easily implemented protocols. Expectancy challenge-based interventions have been identified by the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism as having strong evidence supporting their effectiveness in reducing alcohol use among college students. Recent efforts to translate such programs into forms effective with high school adolescents have been met with mixed results. The focus of the present study was to modify, implement and evaluate the Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC), a program currently validated for use with college populations, for high school adolescents. The single session, high school version of the ECALC was infused into the existing Health Education high school curriculum and implemented with those in the 9th through 12th grades. Measures of alcohol expectancies and alcohol use were completed anonymously by each participant before delivery of the program and for 30 days thereafter. Impact of the ECALC was compared to classes randomly assigned to an attention-matched control condition. Findings revealed significant changes in alcohol expectancies and alcohol use reported by participants in the 11th and 12th grades following delivery of the ECALC. Changes were found across factor analytic and multidimensional scaling (MDS) statistical methods applied to the expectancy measure, as well as across measures of estimated intoxication and drinking quantity/frequency. Findings were consistent among both male and female participants. Reductions in alcohol use were not found among 9th and 10th grade participants, and expectancy changes were inconsistent. The assessment periods for baseline and follow-up were thirty days, which may reflect a limitation in that a longer follow-up may be more likely to capture significant behavioral changes over time. This study was the first to apply both factor analytic and MDS methods to analysis of the Comprehensive Effects of Alcohol questionnaire, with clear implications for expectancy measurement techniques likely to be most appropriate for capturing changes in expectancy activation patterns over time. Overall, this study represents an important advance in the development of an empirically-based and validated alcohol use prevention program effective for use with adolescents. In addition, the ECALC serves as a prevention program that is easily implemented in the high school setting, requiring only 50 minutes of class time, a classroom, and a motivated educator.
Book Synopsis Evaluation of an Expectnacy [sic] Challenge Curriculum in Reducing High Risk Alcohol Use Among College Students when Modified for Large Classes by : Amy Marie Schreiner
Download or read book Evaluation of an Expectnacy [sic] Challenge Curriculum in Reducing High Risk Alcohol Use Among College Students when Modified for Large Classes written by Amy Marie Schreiner and published by . This book was released on 2010 with total page 60 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol consumption has repeatedly been recognized as the primary public health concern impacting students on college campuses. In response to the prevalence of risky alcohol use and lack of effective response among colleges and universities, the National Advisory Council of the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism created a task force to review the relevant research literature on alcohol interventions to advise college administrators on effective program implementation and evaluation as well as provide recommendations for future research directions. Only three strategies met criteria for Tier 1 designation (empirical support specifically with college students) and two of these strategies are intensive and time-consuming individual methods. The third Tier 1 strategy, challenging alcohol expectancies, was the only method that was validated for administration in a group setting. For widespread utility of expectancy-based prevention strategies, effective interventions must be developed for delivery in typical settings. The focus of the present study was to modify an existing classroom curriculum designed to alter expectancy processes of college students for use in classroom settings of 100+ students as they have become the typical class size in college and university settings. The modified expectancy curriculum was implemented in a single session with students during their actual classes. Measures of alcohol consumption and alcohol related harms were collected anonymously for the 30 days prior and the 30 days following the curriculum. Measures of alcohol expectancies were also collected anonymously immediately prior and immediately following the curriculum. Analyses revealed significant reductions in average drinks per sitting males and key expectancy changes for both males and females. A low number of high-risk drinkers led to further exploratory analyses with the exclusion of a proportion of the lighter drinkers in the sample. These analyses revealed significant decreases in average drinks per sitting and peak drinks per sitting for both males and females. There were no significant changes in alcohol related harms. This study represents an important extension of expectancy-based interventions for a college population. An intervention that began as a multi-session, time and resource intensive protocol for a small group of participants has been successfully modified for use with groups of 100+ people. The current protocol can be given to this large a group in a single session curriculum that can be delivered in any standard classroom.
Book Synopsis The Role of Contextual Cues and Alcohol Intoxication in Alcohol Expectancy Activation by : Jeffrey D. Wardell
Download or read book The Role of Contextual Cues and Alcohol Intoxication in Alcohol Expectancy Activation written by Jeffrey D. Wardell and published by . This book was released on 2014 with total page 121 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: The purpose of this study was to provide the first examination of the joint effects of contextual cues and alcohol intoxication on the activation of alcohol expectancies in memory. I also examined the association between expectancy activation and self-reported motivations to drink (i.e. , urges and intentions to drink). Young adult heavy drinkers (N=95) were randomly assigned to drink a moderate dose of alcohol or a placebo (alcohol manipulation), and then listened to positive or negative drinking scenarios (cue manipulation). Before and after these manipulations, participants completed a modified Stroop task assessing positive and negative expectancy activation, as well as self-report measures of urges and intentions to drink. The analyses revealed no significant main or interactive effects of the alcohol or cue manipulations on activation of alcohol expectancies. Instead, the alcohol and cue manipulations had a joint, moderating impact on the associations between expectancy activation and urges and intentions to drink. Specifically, both increased activation of negative expectancies and decreased activation of positive expectancies predicted decreases in urges to drink, but only for intoxicated participants in the negative cue condition. For the same participants, decreased activation of positive expectancies also predicted decreases in intentions to drink alcohol right now. However, for participants in the negative cue condition who had consumed a placebo, increased activation of positive expectancies predicted decreases in intentions to drink. There were no associations between expectancy activation and urges or intentions to drink for those in the positive cue condition. Results suggest that whether memory activation of alcohol expectancies has an impact on motivations to drink may depend on the relevance of the activated expectancies to the current drinking context. This process appears to be influenced by a complex interaction between contextual cues in the environment and the pharmacological effects of alcohol.
Book Synopsis Evaluation of Digitally Enhanced Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) for Use with Mandated College Students by : Abigail B. Fried
Download or read book Evaluation of Digitally Enhanced Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) for Use with Mandated College Students written by Abigail B. Fried and published by . This book was released on 2013 with total page 83 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol use has been a longstanding problem on college campuses. Despite the efforts National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism and the commissioned Task Force on College Drinking (2002), there has been a recent rise in the number of alcohol related arrests and violations on college campuses. Within the high-risk mandated student population, the most successful programs utilize motivational enhancement strategies, such as the Brief Alcohol Screening and Intervention for College Students (BASICS). Likely due to financial constraints, an important issue that has been raised is the limited availability of validated methods for alcohol prevention and intervention on college campuses. The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of the digitally assisted Expectancy Challenge Alcohol Literacy Curriculum (ECALC) by direct comparison of the ECALC to an already well-established treatment (i.e., BASICS) in an effort to reduce problematic alcohol use and related negative consequences among mandated college students. The role of the digital enhancements is to decrease time and resources necessary for training facilitators and aid in widespread implementation. Analyses revealed significant reductions on all four positive alcohol expectancies subscales for those in the ECALC condition and a significant intervening effect for the expectancies of Sociability and Liquid Courage. Results also revealed that for both males and females, those in the ECALC condition demonstrated significantly greater reductions in frequency of alcohol use (i.e., number of drinking days per month) and comparable reductions in typical (i.e., mean BAC, average drinks per sitting, average drinks per week) and heavy alcohol use (i.e., peak BAC, peak drinks per sitting, number of binge episodes) at follow-up when compared to those in the BASICS condition.
Book Synopsis Development and Evaluation of a Single-session Expectancy Challenge Intervention to Reduce Alcohol Use Among Heavy Drinking College Students by : Hoyee Cathy Lau
Download or read book Development and Evaluation of a Single-session Expectancy Challenge Intervention to Reduce Alcohol Use Among Heavy Drinking College Students written by Hoyee Cathy Lau and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 77 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: While overall rates of college student drinking have declined slightly since 1980, extreme forms of drinking are escalating. A comprehensive review of all aspects of alcohol use among college students completed by a panel of scientists and college presidents concluded that very few approaches for dealing with student drinking can be considered empirically validated, and they strongly encouraged additional efforts to develop and validate effective strategies. Expectancy challenge approaches designed to reduce risky drinking through changing key expectancies have been identified as one of the few validated strategies, but this approach has not been developed into a format that is reliably effective with females or readily delivered in a single meeting. Widespread implementation of expectancy-based strategies is dependent on further evolution of a pragmatic format of this approach while maintaining effectiveness with groups that has already been established and increasing effectiveness with other groups.
Book Synopsis The Effect of Alcohol Expectancies on Postural Sway in College Students During an Alcohol Advertisement Prime by :
Download or read book The Effect of Alcohol Expectancies on Postural Sway in College Students During an Alcohol Advertisement Prime written by and published by . This book was released on 2006 with total page 107 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol expectancies are of particular interest because of their relationship to alcohol use and the possibility that they might predict potential alcohol-related problems, such as risk for alcoholism. Posturography, a technique that can be used to quantify adaptive mechanisms involved in posture and balance, was used in evaluating expectancy effects on postural sway because it is sensitive to cognitive processing demands. Drawing from the cognitive-processing approach of alcohol expectancy, this study investigates how expectations of alcohol implicitly influence psychomotor movement while viewing an alcohol advertisement prime. At session one, 251 male and female undergraduates were assessed using the Brief Alcohol Expectancy Questionnaire - Social/Physical and Pleasurable scales [AEQ (Brown, Goldman, Inn, & Anderson, 1980)] and a variety of other self-report instruments. At session two, participants were randomly assigned to an advertisement condition. Participants in the experimental condition were exposed to either alcohol-related print advertisements depicting people drinking in social situations or ads containing the alcohol product alone. The control condition viewed nonalcohol-related advertisements. Participants viewed the advertisements on a large screen TV as they stood relaxed on a force plate, after which their craving levels were assessed through self-report. The results showed no significant relationship between alcohol expectancies and postural sway. However, ANOVAs performed on measures of sway showed a significant difference in the amount of anterior-posterior (AP) sway variability among the three advertisement groups F(2,101)=4.92, p
Book Synopsis Regulating Consequences by : Angela Lea Receveur
Download or read book Regulating Consequences written by Angela Lea Receveur and published by . This book was released on 2016 with total page 44 pages. Available in PDF, EPUB and Kindle. Book excerpt: Alcohol use is a pervasive problem among college students, with 59% of full-time students reporting alcohol use and 39% reporting binge drinking (SAMHSA, 2014). Although peers are known to influence alcohol consumption, the potential influence of personality characteristics are less well known. This study examined the role of regulatory focus and alcohol expectancies on the association between peers' consequences for alcohol use and participants' alcohol consumption. Exposure to peers' experience of consequences for alcohol use was expected to have an increased association with participants' expectancies and consumption when it was congruent with participants' regulatory focus. Prevention focus was expected to result in an increased negative response to negative consequences for peer alcohol use and promotion focus was expected to result in an increased positive response to positive consequences for peer alcohol use. The current study examined the potential effect of this person-situation congruence by having participants fill out a series of questionnaires online using SurveyMonkey. These questionnaires included measures of positive and negative consequences for peer alcohol use, positive and negative alcohol expectancies, regulatory focus, participants' own alcohol consumption, and perception of friends' alcohol use. Neither positive nor negative alcohol expectancies were found to mediate the association between consequences for peers' alcohol use and one's own drinking. Promotion focus was also not found to moderate the association of peers' positive consequences for alcohol use and one's own use or the association between peers' positive consequences for alcohol use and positive alcohol expectancies. On its own, prevention focus did moderate the association between negative consequences for peers' alcohol use and one's own drinking, such that it enhanced the inverse association between negative consequences and alcohol consumption. Prevention focus also moderated the association between negative consequences for peers' alcohol use and negative alcohol expectancies in an unexpected way, with participants with a higher level of prevention focus being less influenced by peers' consequences. These results suggest that there may be additional confounding variables that are not included in these models. Future studies should consider alternative methods of data collection and research designs, including experimental or quasi-experimental designs.
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